The Sûfîs interested in “Af’aal-i Ibaad” (The Deeds of People) like the Kalam scholars. However, this topic comprises a very wide field, and in this paper the ideas of Ibn Arabi on Af’aali Ibaad will mostly be examined.
The issue of The Deeds of People has been studied and elaborated by the Kalam scholars, and much and different opinions have been given about it. The Deeds of People can be divided as “Iztýrârî” (compulsory) and “Ihtiyari” (voluntary). Although there is a consensus regarding to the ýztýrârî (compulsory) deeds of people which are created by Allah among Islamic sects there is no agreement about the latter among religious sects, and various ideas on this issue have been pointed out by them.
Abdusselam al-Lakkânî suggested that there are three type of Kalamist opinions about the ihtiyârî (voluntary) deeds of people. These are:
1. According to the Ahl as-
Sunne (People of Sunne-Muslim Orthodoxy); the role of
a person in his ihtiyari deeds is only to gain. As Mankind cannot
create his own deeds, he is not obligated to do them.
2. As far as “Jabriya”
(Predestinarianism) is concerned, it is impossible to
mention about the ihtiyar (willing power) of a human so a person
is obliged to perform his deeds.
3. In terms of Mu’tezilite, a person
creates his own ihtiyari deeds with the God blessed power he
possesses.[1]
One of these sects called Jabriya, as we know has appeared with the purpose of absolving Almighty Allah from incapability and polytheism belief. They have indeed exceeded the limit. Because while denying the will power and ihtiyar of human beings, they have opened up a perspective for ideas about the oppression and absurdity of Almighty Allah which are not appropriate for the Glory of Allah just by accepting that they will be punished in return for their sins, and that they will be rewarded for their good deeds.
Besides this, the Mu’tezilite sect which has been established under the leadership of Vâsýl Ibn Atâ (death: 131/748), has been inspired by the idea that people are responsible for their deeds, and as an opposition to the Jabriya sect denying the human will power, and referring to Allah as the one who is responsible for everything. They claim that they must create their own deeds and they have introduced the idea that mankind is the Creator of his own deeds. According to their opinion, Allah only creates the ýztýrârî deeds of people deeds of people; mankind creates his own ihtiyârî deeds with power given to him by God.
The Ehl-i Sunne scholars representing the Ash’ari and Mâturîdî sects, have considered the Jabriya opinions about the deeds of people as exceeding the limit; and have considered the Mu’tezilite opinions as too subjective and they have followed a straight path between both opinions.
Ahl as-Sunne scholars who accept Allah as the Creator of all the deeds, even though they have different ideas about the description, they have introduced the “Kasb” (The Theory of acquisition) theory in the ihtiyari deeds of people. According to their opinion, Allah creates the ihtiyari deeds, but, mankind only gains in other words Allah is the creator; mankind is the Kâsib (earner, provider) one who desires and gains. So mankind, is responsible because of his desires which are the reason for the out come of his deeds.
After summarising the opinions of Kalamist schools about the deeds of people, let us examine the opinions of the Sufis that have an important place in Islamic philosophy on the same issue.
The Sufis, agree in the idea that Allah created all of the deeds of people, as well as in the opinion that mankind has a will power. Although, there is a disagreement among Sufis concerning the explanation of this will power. As a result, they all agree that Allah has Divine Power and a Divine Power comprising everything.
Kushayri who examines the Kalamist subject matters with a Sufi intelligence and conscience, thinks that all of the deeds of human beings whether they are good or evil are created by the Almighty. He is also the creator of their origins and destiny. If this was not true, then human beings would not have been the mortal creatures and the “Merbubs” (the ones being disciplined) of Allah Whereas, he says; Say that, Allah is the Creator of all things[2] Without doubt, We have created everything according to a Plan.[3]
According to Kushayri, due to the performances of human beings are objective things it is necessary that their Creator must be Allah If the deeds (of mankind) are not created, then Allah would have been only the creator of some (of the others) instead of all of them. In this case, the verse “Allah is the creator of everything would have been false. And once again, it is known that, the deeds are much more in number then the origin. of Allah created the origin, and if mankind created the deeds, then his power would have been much more magnificent than Allah and the things he created would have been much more than the things Created by him.
On the contrary, he says; “Or, did they find partners against Allah who creates like Allah, and did the things they Created resemble the creations of Allah ,[4] and prohibits the existence of another Creator.[5]
Therefore, Allah is the creator of everything. This Creation, comprises mankind and everything depending on him. Kushayri points out; if Allah wanted to motivate all human beings to the way of Islam, he would have done it. If Allah wanted to leave them in corruption (again) Allah would have done it.
There are no means for the work of Allah[6] If Allah wants human beings to be in maturity, there is nothing to prevent (this).if Allah wants them to remain in corruption, there will not be (anybody) to accuse them. As Allah is a God who does not receive any orders from anyone, nobody can make judgement about Allah’s works by forcing, and dominating.[7]
Kushayri accepts mankind’s will power in his deeds. However, this will power is only completed with the inspiration, information, favouring and guidance to the right path or self-possession given by Allah The source of these terms are some Qur’anic verses. For example for the explanation of the (........... ....... . ........)[8] verse, Kushayri says in other words (God) has made the evil and good paths easy for him and gave him inspiration about how he shall possess[9] in the explanation of the verse (................................. ............................... ... ......)[10] he says; Whether it’s good or evil we have taught the path. If he disbelieves, it will be with “Hýzlan” (disappointment) , if he thanks God it will be with ”Tawfik” conformation, (successfulness)[11]
Therefore, Kushayri clearly recognises mankind’s will power as a principle. But, he does not accept the absoluteness of the will power. He attributes it to the works of Allah, since Kushayri looks at this topic from different aspect. Not only through the reward and punishment point of view. Because absolute will power means creating, and Creating is only possessed by Allah Nobody other than Allah can create. He. is the Creator of all things, it is impossible for a human being to possess this attribute,. Because creating is not true for mankind
This is why he says: “The Erbab- Tevhid (Believers) know that Allah, is (their) Possessor and the will power is granted to them. They also know that the human being does not have (any) possession (domination). The one who does not own a possession will not have domination, the one who does not have domination will not have a ihtiyar (true will power). So, they (people) are unable to turn away the will power, and they cannot make opposition against (their Lord)”.[12]
According to the famous Sufi Ibn Arabi, all of the deeds of people whether they are good or evil, appears from the humans in terms of the laws and original nature which dominates over them since the eternal beginning. Mankind, can only desire and select a deed among the possible deeds, desired by Allah at the eternal beginning. Because the favour of Allah makes it necessary that the deeds of people occur in accordance with the state of their “Ayân as-sâbite” (Immutable Entities, Established Potentialities or fixed Potentialities). In other words, if a person performs a good deed, this arises from his original good nature of the eternal beginning if he commits evil, this arises from his original evil nature of the eternal beginning The human being, in both cases, collects the fruits of his deeds in other words his original nature of eternal beginning.[13]
Hence, Ibn Arabi believes that although all of the deeds arise from humans and related to them they are created by Almighty Allah, and the difference between relating them to Allah and relating them to humans is nothing else but the difference between the Divine Names “Zâhir” (The Manifest, The name apparent) and “Bâtýn” (The Anterior, Hidden, The name Interior).[14]
However, Allah associated (those deeds) with humans to test them. In other words, Allah wants to see whether humans attribute those deeds to themselves or to Allah by feeling ashamed.[15]
While, the deeds arise from the soul which Allah desired as a necessity within the Divine Nature at the eternal beginning, mankind is obliged in his own will power. In addition, all of the deeds arising from mankind, must be created by Allah not by people. But, this has not occurred in this world. Deeds only occur in the hands of people. As deeds are occurrences, and they can appear only in objects.[16]
Thus, it is understood that in the deeds performed by people, mankind has no effect in the creation aspect. There is only a domination within their deeds. When Allah desired a true work or an action within their material origin so that they shall exist, it was impossible for them to remain in existence by themselves, so it is necessary to have a space in which creation shall take place. In the creation of this possible existence, there is only a domination for that space. The space does not have any effect over it.[17] Ibn Arabi, shows the following Hadis al-kudsi (Muslim tradition in which God Himself speaks) “I will be his ear, eye, hand and feet”[18] as an evidence of mankind’s deeds being created by Almighty Allah.[19]
Ibn Arabi, recognises that mankind possesses a power created by Allah, by considering the fact that relates some deeds to mankind and that Allah makes mankind the means for the appearance of those deeds so that Divine orders being offered, in return receiving reward and punishment has some kind of a meaning. Mankind gains one of the deeds desired by Allah among possible deeds at the eternal beginning, by using the power created by Allah for Ibn Arabi, Allah keeps people responsible after giving this power.
When mankind loses this power, his responsibility is also cancelled. Allah makes the manifestation of this power in mankind through the “Nefha” (breeze, breath) by the means of an angel. If this power did not exist, the responsibility of people would not have existed, and they would not have been ordered to say; “We can only ask for your Help”[20]
The asking for help shows the acceptance of mankind ability to perform the deeds. Therefore, Ibn Arabi expresses that the idea of the Mu`tezilite sect about attributing mankind’s deeds to themselves is true in one aspect, and that they are mistaken in another aspect. He confirms the Ash’aris for attributing the creation of deeds to Allah, and for attributing gaining to mankind as a strong evidence of Sher`iat and Logic.[21] Therefore, he clearly states his opinions concerning the gaining, and he supports the Ash’ari ideas on this issue. Ibn Arabi, explains the responsibility given to mankind by Almighty Allah for some of his deeds as wisdom and knowledge. Thus, he argues that it is not right for Allah to order somebody to perform something while its known that he has not got the power to do it.[22]
Ibn Arabi with these expressions is trying to explain the following: The deeds are planned for us. While there are deeds which we must do, which we can select or some deeds which are prohibited, forbidden, there are laws of Sharia (the revealed, or canonical, law of Islam) permitting or prohibiting them. We are responsible for this. Moreover, the rewards or punishments for obey performing them or refrain keeping away from them are arranged, and Allah makes his judgement in regard to people on the basis of their performances.
Ibn Arabi supports his argument with the Qur`anic verses, and he states that mankind can reject the orders of the Satan, since he is powerful enough to do so. He finally reaches a conclusion that “it is not necessary to attend to every invitation”.[23]
Before we examine the Sufi’s determination of mankind’s limits of freedom, we must discover what they understand about forcing. According to the Sufis, this can only be true among people who are prevented. This occurs when the one who orders says do it , and the person receiving the orders is prevented from carrying out the orders and when the ordering authority forces him to carry out this task.[24]
When looking through this aspect, mankind is completely free within the area he remains which Ibn Arabi calls “Hazâinü’l-Cûdi’l-Ilâhî” a somewhat Divine Knowledge. This area contains the “A’yân as-Sâbite” (Established Potentialities) as some kind of a non-existence (adem) which is the possibility within Divine Knowledge. These are named a’yan as-sabite or constant beings within non-existence, since there is a possibility that they appear in the world of existence or remain unchanged. They await the “Cûd-ý Ýlâhî” (manifestation) that will take them out of the related or attributed darkness of non-existence to the illumination of existence Ibn Arabi explains this as being which has not already appeared in the stage of existence is completely free. But, when it appears in the stage of existence and exists its freedom is not absolute, because it will obey its original nature. However, according to Ibn Arabi this submission is not by force. As we mentioned above, according to the Sufis, forcing the submission is only true for people who are prevented. Thus, we call this “Zâtî” (self) automatic within the possible beings. All of the deeds of mankind arise from himself, they are self-motivated.
Ibn Arabi describes absolute freedom as which possible beings benefit from within the “Hazâinü’l-Cûdi’l-Ýlâhî” All beings beg Allah so that they are taken to the world of existence. Allah decides on their appearance according to the requirement of the Divine Wisdom. When it is the time for possible beings to depart from the world of non-existence and to appear in the “Âlem an-Nur” (World of existence), they hear the announcement of Allah inviting them to existence with the word “Kün” (Be!). At that stage, Allah, instead of non-existence, prefers the existence of possible beings. When explaining this, Ibn Arabi, says; “At the eternal beginning, possible beings were a constant origin within the Divine Knowledge of Allah There was an absolute freedom for it . It was desiring from the blessing of existence which it never experienced. Allah accepted its desire. (thus) Its freedom was limited with its special original nature which will slowly appear.[25]
In this circumstance, for Ibn Arabi, mankind is free since the time he remained within Divine knowledge. At the eternal beginning, Allah knows that, he will appear in the world of existence with a limited freedom and that he will select the way to good or evil in the requirement of his self origin and original nature. The fact that, Allah knows this, will not affect the possible beings, because this knowledge of Allah depends on the already known (in other words their origin and capabilities). Thus, Ibn Arabi argues that the knowledge of Allah depends on the already known and there will not be any change in the Divine knowledge. On the basis of this view, knowledge follows the already known, as it depends on the already known. This is why knowledge has no effect over the already known.[26]
Ibn Arabi states that the reason for the existence of all things is not knowledge, but is the Power of Allah This is the Divine Command ordering all things to exist, and everything suddenly comes to existence. The knowledge of Allah determines whether all things will exist or not.[27] So the state already of the known things puts a limit to the nature of. Knowledge, depends on the already known, so what ever is the already known, knowledge is the same.
In other words, what ever is the already known within the soul and self origin, that’s how it will be related to it.[28]
Therefore, mankind will not know about the deeds he will perform in detail,. because everything is possible. When something happens in the future, the reason for this is not Divine Knowledge. Because, for Ibn Arabi, Allah knows about the already known, according to the state it exists in. Mankind, decides on and selects the deeds. But, he only prefers and selects the thing, which Allah knew and which the Divine knowledge relates to the eternal beginning.
Ibn Arabi accepts the self nature of every person as the source of the human intellectual will power. This (the human self nature) is one of the possible beings which Ibn Arabi describes, as is a waiting to enjoy the blessing of existence. When, Allah turned it into existence with Divine Power, this was not because its creation was necessary, needed, but, the purpose was to bless it with God send existence At that moment, (God) shows its circumstance and origin piece by piece.[29]
As, Allah Almighty knows every possible thing within its own original soul; as knowledge depends on the already known; as the Divine power opens up all of the Divine Power opens up all of the features of possible beings that appear in the world of existence within their unknown nature in a special way, no being has the right to bring an evidence about its destiny of life. Because Allah makes judgement according to its self nature and personal limit. That’s why, every person is responsible for himself according to his own nature and the limits of his tolerance. The person determines the goodness or evilness of his nature and his limits of tolerance by himself. While his nature is like this he has the individual capability of falling or rising up. The thing which will arise relating to his ascension and descent will be good or evil.[30]
The meaning of the reality that everything in the Universe happens with the Divine Judgement and Destiny of Allah means that Allah arranges the existence of everything with Divine Wisdom and puts limits in their relations.
In other words, Allah puts limits in the amounts of everything and determines the time and moment.[31] From this point of view, Ibn Arabi thinks that everything guides itself to its own way due to a’yan as-sabite. Allah knows this completely at the eternal beginning and even Allah cannot change this, since the Divine Will does not concern this. All the believers, nonbelievers, obedient and the rebellious show the thing which their a’yan as-sabite exist on, comprised by their existence, constant being, in other words the knowledge and self Divine Being of Allah That’s why Allah says; “They did not make oppression against us, but they made oppression to themselves.”[32] and “I do not make oppression to my mortals.”[33]
Ibn Arabi similar to the other Sufis accepts that all deeds are truly created by Almighty Allah However, he also suggests that they are associated with us, because we are the centre of the rewards and sins the deeds are related to us. If Allah had opened our eye of conscience, we would have seen that all deeds belong to Allah He is the maker of our deeds, but we should remain in modesty. Because, relating the deeds to the creation of Allah and relating ourselves as the centre of deeds, is the beauty of the Sharia (the revealed, or canonical, law of Islam). When Allah shows the wisdom of what is attributed as evil, we will see it beautiful.
Thus, Allah changes our sins into rewards as legally, not as a whole.[34] This is why, Ibn Arabi thinks that, the one who absolves his lord Allah from polytheism belief, is in the high position of “Kamâl” (perfection, completeness) , instead of the position of “Ihsân” (beneficence).
This state is observing Allah within the circumstance of mortals. In this observation, the mortal can see that the creator of the deed is Allah not himself, because the mortal is nothing else but the centre of the rising deed.[35]
The Sufis believe that everything arises from Allah He is the Creator of all things and their means. Allah is with the means and the results which are made up of means. The wisdom of Allah is beyond our intelligence. Ibn Arabi, after saying that creatures have no power, he then says; “Because there is no Creator of Deeds other than Allah ”[36] Therefore, Ibn Arabi does not agree with the Mu’tezilite claiming that mankind creates his own deeds. Because he thinks that mankind is just a specie, and is not capable of creating his deed. When he gains the strength he needs from the creator of all deeds the one and only Allah. We relate the deeds to the origins of what we call the means of possible beings, whereas, their real creator is Allah.[37]
If we take into consideration, it will be seen that Ibn Arabi and the Sufis perform the theories of the Ash’ari sect concerning the subject matter of Divine Judgement and Destiny and the related subject of rewards and sins in a wide spanned. But they are following a more constraining way in this subject than the Ash’ari, and when they do it, they do not do the same mistake done by the Jabriya sect. Therefore, they remain somewhere between the Jabri theory and the Ash’ari theory within this topic. Perhaps its because of this relation that, Ibn Taymiya[38] and his student Ibn Kayyým al-Cawziyye[39] think that the Sufis are affected by the Jabriya sect.
“Everything in the Universe, takes place within the Laws of force as planned at the eternal beginning. Every person, according to Ibn Arabi, is born as a rebellious or obedient; good or evil individual according to his a’yan as-sâbite nature comprised by the eternal knowledge of Almighty Allah and he is independent.[40]
The force he understands does not mean something turning to a deed maker other than the nature of things considered by the Jabriya sect. Because, he argues that the source of this force is the personal natures of things.[41]
This is why we can see that within the force theory accepted by Ibn Arabi, a responsibility is given to mankind according to his deeds. Because, he accepts that obedience as well as rebellion arises from the nature of mankind. That’s why, sometimes he obeys Allah and sometimes he shows rebellion against Allah Ibn Arabi accepts that mankind is responsible for committing good and evil because of his submission to his own personal nature.[42]
It seems that force is a fundamental according to the Sufis. Even so, when describing Sufism it has been described as the falling of the will Power, as being similar to a new born baby, and beyond this is described as being like a corpse in the hands of a corpse washer surrendering to Allah.[43]
“Tawhid” means much more than declaring “La ilahe illa’l-lah” in Sufism. For example, Herawi explains tawhid as the falling down of means and he says every thing happening arises from the Divine Will.[44] Tawhid, which expresses that by creating deeds, Allah is Unique in the Sufi term it also means besides rejecting many false gods, it means rejecting the means. Because, all means have submitted to the orders of Allah and begging for help from the means is a degree from polytheism. ‘Tawakkul” (trust in God) which is a sign of performing the force theory, is one of the important spiritual degrees according to the Sufis.
The spiritual student cannot enter into the Sufis path without forsaking his will power and the precautions and without submitting to the judgement comprised by the Plan of Allah Because, he is incapable of distinguishing between good and evil, and between obligation and blessing. After he submits himself to mortality and obedience he is under the domination of Allah’s Divinity. Hence, Sahl Ibn Abdullah says; the first degree in tawakkul (trust in God) is the mortal becoming like a corpse in the hands of the corpse washer by surrendering to Allah The human mortal accepts everything that Allah desires.[45] There is no activates and precautions for that mortal. When describing the spiritual degrees of the Sufis, Harawi says that; the person spiritually guided within the degree of tawakkül does not accept any partner in the possessions and domination of Allah, since mankind will not observe anything other than the works of Allah.[46]
According to the Sufis, tawakkül is not only an idea. It is a spiritual path. Imam Ghazâlî points out to some realities of the signs of spiritual guidance concerning tawakkül experienced by the Sufis. He states that the daily bread of Sufis are given to them although they do not expect it. The person submitting will not become worried even if his possessions are stolen, even if he suffered a loss in trade. According to Ghazâlî who shows the example of birds wandering in hunger and returning satiated, the Sufis cannot rely on anyone else but Allah for daily bread.[47]
However, besides this, our Holy Prophet (pbuh) stated that the challenge made against the ego is “Cihad-ý Akbar”. There is nobody among Islamic Communities and Sects who make Cihad against their ego like the Sufis. They have understood the challenge against the ego as well as challenging physically as the meaning of Cihad. Because, as long as their physical strength is unable to dominate over their egos, it is impossible for the ego to make peace.[48]
With many events expressing the domination over the desires of the body and flesh and which are written in Sufism books, they tried to express keeping away from natural sensation and mortal attributions.[49]
They have prevented hunger because it causes the weakness of sensation and the abasement of the ego.[50]
We should not think that there is something contrary between these two opinions of the Sufis, because the thing which the Sufis understand about freedom is different from the Kalamist`s understanding. According to the Sufis, freedom is the ego being free from absurdness, and from the world and worldly pleasures. This can only be achieved by truly submitting oneself to Allah. In other words, when mankind gives up his own freedom for the sake of requesting the desires of Allah he will become a true obedient mortal. Thus, a true obedient mortal, requests only the requirements of the Sharia. With the complete and true mortality, a person will become free against everything other than Allah, since complete and true mortality means that a person gains moral with the morality of Allah, and becomes free from his personal attributions. When mankind achieves this, he will truly become free. In this point of view, according to the Sufis, freedom means that mankind is not under the captivity of created things, and is not dominated by no one existing in the universe.[51]
After expressing the meaning of freedom according to the Sufis; “Know that, the true freedom is complete mortal obedience, Kushayri says “if a person becomes faithful and sincere in his mortality towards Allah he will save his freedom from the captivity of strangers.[52] Even so for him, for the true freedom of the mortal, he must not be under the captivity of any of the created things for any purpose of the world or the hereafter.[53]
As we see, freedom has two aspects which seem to be contrary to each other in a way Sufis understand it. In other words, in one aspect there is a strong will power trying to gain freedom from everything and separating from everything. The second aspect is submitting to Allah with an absolute force. Thus, the meaning of freedom understood by the Sufis is not an attribution of the human will power, it is a degree which the Sufis want to reach. This explains why it motivates mankind towards hard working and challenging. Mankind’s deeds happens with his own will power and strength. Allah concealed everything from mankind, although everything is planned by Divine Destiny, so that mankind feels free and becomes responsible.
[1] Taftâzânî, Sharhu’l-Makasýd, 143; Istanbul, 1305
[2] Qur’an, 13:16
[3] Qur’an, 54:49
[4] Qur’an, 13:16
[5] Kalâbâdhi, at-Ta’arruf, 60, (al-Maktaba al-Külliyya al-Azhariyya ) , First edition, 1389
[6] Kushayri, Latâif al-Iþârât, 1:283; al-Matbbaa dâr al-Kitâb al-Arabi, Cairo
[7] Kushayri, Latâif, 3:162
[8] Qur’an, 80:20
[9] Kushayri, Latâif, 6:257
[10] Qur’an, 76:3
[11] Kushayri, Latâif, 6/229
[12] Kushayri, Latâif, 1:60
[13] Ibn Arabi, Fusûs al-Hikam, 2:164, Beirut-Lebanon, 1946
[14] Ibn Arabi, Fusûs, 2/208
[15] Ibn Arabi, Fusûs, 2/208; Futûhât, 4:34, Cairo, 1269-1274
[16] Ibn Arabi, Futûhât, 3:300
[17] Ibn Arabi, Futûhât, 3:85
[18] Sahîh-i Buhari ve Tercümesi (Sahih al-Buhârî and its Translation), Ötüken Yayýnlarý, 14:6424
[19] Ibn Arabi, Futûhât, 4:20
[20] Qur’an, 1:5
[21] Ibn Arabi, Futûhât, 1/273
[22] Ibn Arabi, Futûhât, 2/281
[23] Ibn Arabi, Futûhât, 3:112
[24] Kalâbâdhi, at-Ta’arruf, 65
[25] Ibn Arabi, Futûhât, 2:248-249
[26] Ibn Arabi, Futûhât, 4:223
[27] Ibn Arabi, Futûhât, 4:223
[28] Ibn Arabi, Futûhât, 4:46
[29] Ibn Arabi, Futûhât, 1:162
[30] Mahmut Kasým, Muhyiddin Ibn Arabi, 164-165; Cairo, 1967
[31] Mahmut Kasým, Muhyiddin Ibn Arabi, 161
[32] Qur’an, 2:57
[33] Qur’an, 50:29
[34] Ibn Arabi, Futûhât, 4:34
[35] Ibn Arabi, Futûhât, 2:397, 4:117
[36] Ibn Arabi, Kitâb al-Mesâil, 21; Dâirât al-Maârif al-Ýslâmiyye, 1948
[37] Ibn Arabi, Fusûs, 2:314
[38] Ibn Taymiya, Menâhic as-Sunne, 2:227, Maktabat al-Hayrât, Beirut
[39] Ibn Qayyým al-Jawziye, Talbîs al-Iblîs, 184, Daar al-Va’y al- Arabi, Beirut
[40] Ibn Arabi, Futûhât, Fusûs, 2:158-159
[41] Ibn Arabi, Fusûs, 2:228
[42] Ibn Arabi, Fusûs, 2:228-229
[43] Kushayri, al-Risâlah, 2:552, al-Ghazâlî, Kitâb al-Arbaîn fî Usûl al-Dîn, 249; Maktabat al-Jundî, Cairo
[44] Harawî, al-Manâzil al-Sâirîn, 24; Matbaat Muhammed as-Sabîh, Cairo
[45] al-Ghazâlî, Ihyâ al-Ulûm al-Dîn, 1:466-468; Matbbat Isa al-Halabî, Cairo, 1358/1939
[46] Harawî, al-Manâzil al-Sâirîn, 24
[47] al-Ghazâlî, Ihyâ al-Ulûm al-Dîn, 4:260
[48] al-Ghazâlî, Kitâb al-Arbaîn, 1:113
[49] Kushayri, al-Risâlah, 1:329
[50] al-Ghazâlî, Kitâb al-Arbaîn, 1:104-105
[51] Kushayri, al-Risâlah, 2:460
[52] Kushayri, al-Risâlah, 2:461
[53] Kushayri, al-Risâlah, 2:461
