How The Media Affected World War II: An Independent Study
Prior to Japan's
attack on the American fleet in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, America's involvement
in the war that was then the war in Europe was minimal. Aside from the
technical and supply support that Great Britain and France, for example,
received from America at that time, there was little thought of ever becoming
involved in the war from the American individual. After all, the United
States was functioning well after coming out of the Great Depression that
weakened its economy and spirit. War was not anything anyone wanted or
expected. On Sunday, December
7, 1941, the mindset of all Americans changed. When word got to the mainland
of the United States that the Japanese had bombed the American fleet in
Pearl Harbor, America's people were glued to the radio. Once they were
made aware of the fact that Pearl Harbor was in Hawaii, which was then
an American territory and not yet a state, they realized that they were
at war. Some people first heard the news on the radio while others were
enjoying a baseball game and would hear it from the game's announcer.
By Monday everyone knew. The United States'involvement
in the war lasted from 1941 to 1945, and American culture would change
dramatically in those four years. Communication, which had previously
been primarily within the U.S. as far as the public was concerned, would
go overseas as millions of Americans tried to keep in touch with their
loved ones serving in foreign lands. America in the
post-Depression years (1930s) and the pre-revolutionary years of culture
(1950s) would mature quickly when faced with the conflict. These were
the war years, as they are still often referred to by those who lived
through them, when there was no television and news was broadcast in shorts
by programs such as "The March of Time" prior to the viewing of a movie
in a theater. Most people didn't know much about Japan or Germany and
especially about those who lived in either country. The only ones who
knew about war were the parents and grandparents of those who would be
sent overseas to fight or somehow be part of the Second World War, because
of their experiences in WWI. The 1940s seem
to embody the idea of influential forms of communication. That is to say
that it was during those years that radio became popular, magazines such
as Life debuted, Hollywood's "Golden Years" wereon the horizon as the
studio system was running strong with heads like Louis B. Mayer (MGM)
and Jack Warner (co-founder of Warner Brothers) and prominent journalists,
both male and female, would become noticed and admired; a first for women
journalists. Franklin Roosevelt
was the head of a nation in desperate need of direction and strength,
which he symbolized and inspired. When it came to FDR, the media pulled
off one of its greatest tasks of playing "cover up;' the leader of the
freest nation in the world couldn't even stand up on his own. Every picture
of Roosevelt was taken from the waist up or behind a podium, and on the
rare occasion that he was standing in a picture, he was being assisted.
Yet even after being made aware of his condition, the United States stood
strong beside the president who helped guide them through a war he would
not live to see the end of. The newspaper
industry had been established for many years before WWII and would serve
as not only a form of keeping the public informed with regard to the war
but would also play a role in civil rights, which would notbecome a broadcast
issue for nearly two decades, as women journalists were allowed to cover
the war abroad instead of running their usual society columns. Many magazines
still popular today were introduced during the 1940s. Life, for example,
molded popular society ideals of fashion and sophistication. It covered
issues pertaining to the war as well and would harbor the talents of now
admired photographers and writers. There were also many posters produced
during the war to influence the American public in supporting the war
and doing its part to keep the homeland on its feet. Each poster contained
a strong message, such as the famous "Rosie the Riveter" poster directed
toward women to persuade them to go to work, as there was a shortage of
men in all fields, as well as the many War Bond posters created for financial
support for the war. There were also the famous "Four Freedoms" posters
by Norman Rockwell. They served as both a scare tactic for what was at
stake as well as an emotional source of realization for what to appreciate
about America. The music and
movie industries could arguably be considered the most influential form
of media during the 1940s. It was during this time that Hollywood was
recruited to produce many films about the war starring its most beloved
stars, radio broadcasts became popular, and the "big band era" was created
along with the likes of swing music and swing dancing. The United Service
Organization celebrity tours, started by Bob Hope during World War II,
hosted many famous entertainers whose performances overseas lifted the
spirits of the American troops. Celebrity participation also promoted
the distribution of War Bonds and other monetary support for the war. American pride
was always a strong element in the United States because of the struggles
that developed from WWI and the Depression. "Patriotism was not a dirty
word then. Being brought up in the Boy Scouts, never letting the flag
t ouch the ground and having Memorial Day services that were taken seriously.
We really believed in America." (Moore, "America in the '40s," 1997, video
one) Though America's people were not prepared for the war they faced,
they quickly became prepared for the support they would have to provide
for one another and the nation. The American spirit would not conquer
the task of pulling through the hard times alone. The presence of the
music, movies, journalists, magazines and various posters created specifically
for the forties molded the emotional atmosphere for the decade. "The forties...I
remember, and when I hear those songs, oh, that sound." (Durning, "America
in the '40s," 1997, video one) Talking to those who lived through the
forties as young adults is enough to prove that these forms of media affected
them greatly. They often refer to certain movies or songs in attempt to
explain just what the 1940s meant to them and how WWII changed t heir
lives. Without these forms of entertainment and sources of information,
the American public would not have been so involved in the war that was
also on United States soil in the hearts of those trying to keep America
alive and well. Those media sources made everyone realize that they were
in it together, which made them that much stronger. The World War II generation
was one connected toeach other more so than any other generation to date.
Their emotional and physical strength, as well as their moral support
for the events of that time, molded American history and have created
figures to admire for the generations that have come to follow.
The Los Angeles
Times served as one of the West Coast's major newspapers during the war.
In 1940, the average daily circulation was 226,395, and by the end of
the war in 1945, it jumped to 369,066. On February 14, 1938, prior to
the bombing of Pearl Harbor, Hedda Hopper started a Hollywood gossip column.
Hopper's stories and profiles of movie and music icons boosted the LA
Times' image and gave its readers a little something to look forward rather
than strictly war-based articles. When Germany surrendered on May 7, 1945,
the Los Angeles Times was the first newspaper in the area to reach the
streets for sales to announce to the city and county the good news. (http://www.latimes.com/services/site/la-fact-history.story) The New York
Times had similar success stories to tell during the war. Its circulation
was high and, as a whole, the paper was considered to be one of the best
in the nation. William L. Laurence, a NYT war correspondent, was the only
journalist aboard the B-29 that dropped the atomic bomb over Nagasaki
on August 9, 1945. (http://nytco.com) His first-hand account of the world-altering
event proved to be a gigantic event for the paper. Each newspaper,
whether produced in a small town or serving as one of the nation's largest,
provided detailed maps of the regions US troops were invading. A daily
update of the maps that helped those at home feel somewhat informed of
where their loved ones might be were provided as well as illustrations
pertaining to the war. Each drawing was a combination of comic strip and
war-affiliated poster that had a strong message to go along with it. Printed
in the Santa Paula (California) Chronicle in 1942 was an illustration
of a sad little boy holding his dog with the caption "He gave his dad
- will you give a dollar?" Also included was a drawing of two government
officials in a boxing ring shaking hands with the caption "With one purpose
in mind - our country united for victory." (Santa Paula Chronicle, 1942)
Each paper was filled with ads to support the war by buying victory bonds
and other war bonds. They all served to influence the nation that their
efforts and support were crucial to winning the war. (http://normandy.eb.com/normandy/articles/Pyle_Ernie.html) Two of the leading
war correspondents were Edward R. Murrow and Ernie Pyle. Murrow worked
for CBS and was the first journalist to provide the United States with
live, on the scene radio reports. Pyle, a columnist before WWII, won a
Pulitzer Prize for his coverage of WWII but was killed near the end of
the war by Japanese gunfire. (http://normandy.eb.com/normandy/articles/Pyle_Ernie.html) Before WWII women
journalists were few and far between, and the opportunities they had to
cover hard news stories were even fewer. When America became involved
in the war, everything changed as the male journalists were sent off to
fight. The women who had previously been assigned to the society columns
were now given the opportunity to cover the war on the front lines and
interview prolific figures in the war including Benito Mussolini and Adolf
Hitler. Among the most famous women correspondents were Janet Flanner
of the New Yorker, Sigrid Schultz of the Chicago Tribune, Helen Kirkpatrick
of the Chicago Daily News, Martha Gellhorn of Collier's magazine and Margaret
Bourke-White, a photographer for Life magazine. (Sorel, 1999) Men still dominated
the field of journalism, as there were fewer than one hundred women war
correspondents called to duty. (Sorel, 1999, xiii) Twenty newspapers and
twenty magazines hired women to their staff once the war broke out, as
well as eight wire services and five radio networks. (Sorel, 1999, xiii)
The obstacles that the women had to overcome were greater than those of
men and went beyond the front lines. They would not show any emotions
when confronted with dead or wounded soldiers for fear that they would
be sent home due to the inability to thoroughly cover the story. They
had to stay strong and keep up with the men physically and emotionally.
Many of the women left families behind to take on the opportunity to break
through the barriers that once kept them from showing their true talents
as reporters. Many of the stories
written by the women correspondents included personal reactions to what
they witnessed on the front lines. Their accounts inspired and gained
the admiration of those back in the United States and the newspapers and
magazines that employed the women grew stronger in quality because people
began to respect and admire the courage and strength of the women who
wrote the stories. One of the least
- recognized women war correspondents was Iva Ikuko Toguri, also known
as "Tokyo Rose." Her anti-American radio broadcasts made her hated by
the United States, her homeland. After being abandoned in Japan just days
short of Pearl Harbor, Tokyo Rose was forced to correspond for NHK Radio
in Tokyo. Her broadcasts were meant to exploit Japanese propaganda against
America and scare the nation into surrendering. The Japanese-American
would become a symbol of what America was fighting. Newspapers served
as a consistent and very accessible way of becoming informed on what was
happening overseas. No matter what one's status was in society, whether
it was the upper or lower class, getting a hold of a newspaper was not
a difficult task. Each day updated and sometimes very detailed information
was provided. The only downfall to the impact of newspapers on covering
the war was the lack of reality when they hit the stands. Reading the
stories didn't always get the point across. The war was still a distant
battle that no one back home on American soil would have to face directly.
The reporters and correspondents would take the biggest blunt for what
was being covered because they witnessed most of it first hand. The Photographs
That Educated The World About The War The images of
President Roosevelt stand as a clear example of the impact of photography.
There seemed to almost be a pact made between the media and Roosevelt
to keep his image strong and triumphant because the photographers gave
FDR just the right amount of privacy when creating images for the public
to see. They glorified his strength and ability to hold the country together
and withheld the knowledge of his disability due to Polio. The pictures
taken of Roosevelt capture him in the essence of American pride in poses
with the American flag in the background or meeting with leaders from
allied countries, for example. But the presence of manipulation from the
camera due to the ability to deceive an entire nation, would serve as
proof that no matter how intriguing or unbelievable a picture might be,
the photographer creates the truth. The pictures told the photographer's
version of the story. This also rang true for the Pulitzer Prize - winning
picture of American troops raising the flag in Iwo Jima. The photo shown
to the public was not the original photo but rather a re-creation of the
true, instinctive moment those soldiers had to keep America's image alive. Also to be considered
are the pictures taken of subjects having nothing to do directly with
the war. The fashion of the forties can easily be identified today because
of the images produced of the celebrities and members of "high society"
of the time and cities now defined by sky scrapers can be seen as they
were prior to the dominating buildings. The WWII photographers
faced trials greater than actually taking the pictures themselves; they
had to react quickly to compensate for the slow camera speed and film
exposure from the cameras of the time. (Boyle, 1998, pg. 6) This is not
to mention the many instances they had to dodge the bullets being fired
in their direction as they tried to create a description of the events
for the public to see. Putting the millions
of pictures taken over the four - year period of American involvement
together could tell a more detailed story of what it was like to be on
the front lines than any story published in a newspaper or book. Each
photograph, whether taken professionally or by an amateur, contains great
detail of its wartime subject and each triggers emotions for those who
were there when the pictures were taken, as well as for those trying to
understand what it was like. There was virtually no hesitation between
the photographers and their cameras to take truthful and sometimes gory
pictures; a rarity in an otherwise sheltered and more discreet society.
"The general belief was that truth made the best propaganda." (Boyle,
1998, pg. 9) It is partly because of this that such a huge impact on American
society has been made in regards to the WWII generation. Unlike newspapers,
pictures told a more graphic story about the war. A lot of photographs
included bloody images of soldiers being killed or Jewish people being
tortured in concentration camps. The written word served as a way to inform
but pictures got the point across much more successfully. To be able to
see images of actual battles or even of meetings between President Roosevelt
and foreign leaders trying to find a way to end the war, would impact
all who looked at the pictures because that was as close to the war as
they would get. Each photo provided a mental image for what it was like
to be in the shoes of a soldier and though no form of media could truly
grasp the emotional and physical experiences of those who served in WWII,
photographs gave at least a vague idea. The compilation
of ads in magazines and the posters created during the war may very well
be the media source that best exemplifies the tactics used to gain support
for the war. Many of the messages on both the posters and ads were upfront
and targeted to a nation whose emotions were weak and vulnerable. Life magazine
debuted in 1942 with a beautiful society woman on the cover photographed
by Philippe Halsman, a famous celebrity photographer. In the midst of
a war - torn world, Life directed its cover away from the war and in to
the fashion of the time. Similar magazines of such quality included The
Saturday Evening Post that housed pictures from the war as well as the
artwork of Norman Rockwell, and Look magazine that focused more on the
entertainment of the time. The quality of many magazines was not equal
to that of Life, Look and The Saturday Evening Post, which is why they
are among the most well known magazines of the era. It is also why a lot
of them didn't last and are not published today. The ads in the
magazines were very similar to the illustrations published in the newspapers.
They contained messages emphasizing the importance of voting and donating
to the Red Cross and other relief organizations as well as buying war
bonds. Some of the ads included graphic pictures of wounded soldiers and
others included images of Jewish people being taken to concentration camps
with captions such as (with arrow pointing) "To third year of slavery"
pointing to a Nazi swastika. These imagined yet very real illustrations
crept into the consciousness of Americans ready and willing to go the
extra mile to help. The WWII era
posters were even more graphic and descriptive than the ads in the magazines.
Posters were made for every holiday for war bonds, sometimes with the
images of one less person home to celebrate. There were posters with images
of individuals with the text: "Wanted For Murder: Their careless talk
costs lives." Such images as those of US soldiers being killed as well
as images of Japanese troops being terminated and other anti-Nazi and
German messages were published as well. Also included were images of young
children who became fatherless because of the war. The purpose of all
of these posters was to get inside the emotions of the American public
to ensure support for the war, and they worked. War bond sales stayed
strong and national security was taken seriously because no one wanted
to jeopardize their freedoms any more than they already were. Most of the posters
aiming at angering and shocking the public referred to the Japanese as
"Japs" and used other derogatory terms for the Germans. Not only did these
terms placed on the posters allow America's people to be comfortable with
putting down other people despite the conflict, but they also created
a hostile and often cruel America that would eventually place Japanese-Americans
in camps just as the Germans were doing to the Jewish population in Europe.
This would prove to be one of the United States' lowest points during
the war. Posters that
were not as upsetting but still influential were created as well. A major
emphasis was put on appreciating what the United States represented as
far as freedom and unity were concerned. In one of President Roosevelt's
speeches during the war he named four freedoms, which he believed stood
out from all others: freedom of speech, freedom of religion, freedom from
want, and freedom from fear. Based on those four freedoms defined by FDR
as the heart of America, artist Norman Rockwell created his series of
four posters titled "The Four Freedoms." They featured the images of everyday
Americans living in the free society they had grown accustom to. There
was no doubt that those who had taken the freedom and prosperity that
the United States offered for granted would second-guess their seriousness. Because a majority
of the men in the workplace were sent to war, the factories were understaffed.
Women were then recruited to work and posters were made to encourage women
to seek a job. The famous "Rosie the Riveter" was created during WWII
with the caption "We Can Do It." Women's participation in the war quickly
became handling the duties of making parts for the airplanes and different
forms of ammunition to be sent overseas to the men on the front lines.
There was a sense of connectiveness with making what the "boys" were using
to win the war as well as a boost of self-confidence for the women who
stabilized America's economy. After the war was over, images were put
on posters and in magazines encouraging women to stay at home, cook and
be the happy housewife; a lifestyle some learned to loathe after experiencing
the independence gained from having a job. The magazines and posters distributed throughout the war years embodied American culture and spirit of that time. Directly pertaining to the war, they awakened a nation who had forgotten what it was like to have their lifestyles, and more specifically their freedoms, up for grabs. Having the posters displayed on street corners or in neighborhood markets constantly reminded Americans why their support was crucial to winning the war. The Movies
That Symbolize Hollywood's Golden Age and The Sounds of Swing Perhaps the greatest
emotional impact came from the movies and music that have kept the WWII
era in a time capsule for all to look back on and either reminisce or
learn about a decade that changed American history. The studio system
was in full force and Hollywood's glamour days were, as well. The nation
idolized the movie stars and what they symbolized, which was due to the
publicity outside of the war provided by the studio to promote the industry
and keep it successful. The "big band" era was born into a society looking
for good music to dance to and lyrics to relate to. The mission of the
entertainers and fans: to escape from reality into an atmosphere of make
believe or create a movie with a theme song pertaining to the war to create
a sense of understanding that the world was suffering together. There were two
separate Hollywoods during the 1940s; the Hollywood that created make
believe films and the Hollywood that created true, war-based documentaries
to inform the public. The Hollywood
that created true, war-based films did so with the intention of training
America about how to react in any crisis. "The Story of G.I. Joe" was
based on the life story of war correspondent Ernie Pyle. There were also
films made to promote enlisting into the service. Warner Brothers was
considered the top war propaganda studio, creating hundreds of short films
based strictly on the war. Co-founder of the studio, Jack Warner, became
a lieutenant colonel and traveled to Washington, DC, to approve the production
of the films. (American Movie Classics Movie, "Hollywood Commandos") After
releasing its first film, 150,000 people enlisted in the armed services.
Over 27,000 members of Hollywood studios participated in the war efforts
and in creating the films. Many of the shorts starred such icons as Alan
Ladd, William Holden, Clark Gable and real - life air force pilot James
Stewart, whose first film for the Army Air Corps First Motion Picture
Unit was "Winning Your Wings," which was meant to quickly train soldiers
in the Air Force. (American Movie Classics Movie, "Hollywood Commandos")
Many of the films were restricted from the public and were to be seen
only by official members of the military. (American Movie Classics Movie,
"Hollywood Commandos") Many propaganda
films based on WWII were made before the war was officially a world war.
In 1940, such films as "The Mortal Storm," about the impact of Nazism
on a European family, and "Escape," about being rescued from Nazis, were
created. Alfred Hitchcock made "Foreign Correspondent" about Europe's
involvement in the war. (Greenberg/Higham, 1968, pg. 99) Perhaps the American
public overlooked just how possible their involvement in the war was and
had it been more evident than the production of movies, Pearl Harbor may
not have been so unexpected. The Hollywood
that created make-believe films did so in a well - thought out - manner.
That is, they targeted the emotions of war-torn America by creating story
lines about all aspects of the war. The romantic idea of the 1940s was
strictly Hollywood based. The war love story about the soldier quickly
marrying his sweetheart before he went off to war and then her anticipation
for him to come home and see the child he has never met came from the
back lots of the studios. The number of movies made during the 1940s and
their success is astonishing. Some of the most
well - known movies to come from the Hollywood war years are "Casablanca,"
"Penny Serenade," "Meet me in St. Louis," and "The White Cliffs of Dover."
"Meet Me In St. Louis," set in the early twentieth century, introduced
a song that would become a Christmas classic but was written for the war;
"Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas." The segment that says "Have
yourself a merry little Christmas, let your heart be light. Next year
all our troubles will be out of sight" was originally written to say "Have
yourself a merry little Christmas, it may be your last. Next year we may
all be living in the past." ("Making of Meet Me in St. Louis," 1994) All
of these movies' themes are based on a love story, and with the exception
of "Meet Me in St. Louis," they all have a WWII era setting and all were
a success and loved by a public seeking consolation. The swing era
was being born into a society with open arms. The bandleaders of the time
define 1940s music, but the significance and impact that the music had
on those who first listened to it goes deeper than the danceable quality
that it produced. The significance was in the lyrics. ["Regardless of
which segment of the public they aimed at, the big bands became vitally
important, at home and abroad. In the years between the two world wars,
some of our greatest bands toured all over the world; and wherever they
went, they told a little bit about America."] (Simon, 1967, Foreword By
Frank Sinatra, viii) The 1940s first
introduced the radio voice jockey who went to broadcast concerts live
from hotels or clubs. "Your Hit Parade" debuted as well and was a weekly
countdown to the week's number - one song. (Simon, 1967, pg. 56)Glen Miller,
Les Brown, Harry James, Tommy Dorsey, Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington,
and Benny Goodman were among the most popular bandleaders of the era,
along with the vocal talents of Frank Sinatra (Tommy Dorsey Orchestra),
Doris Day (Les Brown and His Band of Renown), Tex Beneke and The Modernaires
(Glen Miller Orchestra) and Kitty Kallen (Harry James Orchestra). Between
them such hits as "Moonlight Serenade," "Don't Sit Under The Apple Tree
(With Anyone Else But Me)," "Look at Him Now," "It's Been a Long, Long
Time," and "I Wonder," were released to the public, all having to do with
the war. The lyrics of
the songs that came out during the war serve the greatest importance in
realizing the effect they had on the American public. Listed are lyrics
to some of the songs released between 1942 and 1944: ({CD} "The Songs
That Got Us Through WWII," 1990) Jimmy
Dorsey Orchestra "There'll be
bluebirds over the white cliffs of Dover, tomorrow, just you wait and
see. Vaughn Monroe October 1942 "When the lights
go on again, all over the Each song told
a different story about the war and each song was a hit because they represented
the mindset of all America. They encapsulated the dramatic effects of
the war by reflecting the emotions of the time. The songs that debuted
in the forties live on in the hearts of those who first danced to their
tune and in the collections of those who didn't live through the war but
enjoy what it produced. Long-lasting
Effects of the Media Sources that Molded a Generation The generation
often referred to now as "The Greatest Generation," due to Tom Brokaw's
book with the same title, was brought together by the music, movies, and
stories covered by journalists of the time that now define the era. The
grandchildren and great-grandchildren born to those who lived during WWII
know little about the lives of their relatives prior to them being born.
Cliches have sprouted from that era that are easily recognizable. When
Civil Rights became a much larger issue than ever before in the 1960s,
Rosie the Riveter would serve as a symbol of the strength of women. Songs
such as "Boogie Woogie Bugle Boy" have been re-recorded by new artists
and swing music is alive and well because of modern day orchestras such
as "The Big Bad Voodoo Daddy's" and "The Brian Setzer Orchestra." Movies
chronicling the events of WWII are still being made, and the most recent,
"Pearl Harbor," has opened the eyes of a young audience to the events
of sixty years ago. Because of recreations such as these, awareness is
being made about events that molded a generation and the world we live
in today. No matter what one's thoughts are regarding war in general,
there is always room for the admiration of those who fought one of the
worst wars in history and came out of it by making a better life for those
who would come to follow. Media
and WWII vs. Patriotism and The American Spirit The recent terrorist
attacks of September 11, 2001, have rekindled the ideals and unity that
were present during the 1940s. American flags fly high everywhere in the
United States, there is awareness of proper flag etiquette, and even personal
collections of newspapers covering the events are being made. Many songs
that once served a different purpose are now being related to the terrorist
attacks and several new songs have been written dedicated to the events
of September 11, 2001. Eventually movies and documentaries will be made
chronicling the attack on America. Today's media
coverage, though similar to the coverage during WWII with its purpose
to inform, is much different and has a different effect. Television has
allowed minute-by-minute updates on what occurs, and the more detailed
coverage of issues leaves room for more skepticism from the public; a
luxury not granted to those who lived during WWII. Audiences today expect
to be given more information regarding major events that cover all aspects
of the issue, which is something that WWII audiences neither expected
nor knew to expect. This is not to mention the vast amount of information
available on the Internet that gives a wide variety of views on different
issues, since anyone can create a web page and state their opinion. The
major difference is that today people can break down almost every element
of an issue to make a personal decision of which way to interpret it because
more information is available. During WWII, little information was available
to the public outside of what the media sources and the government wanted
to be known. Since Vietnam, anti-war protests have become an expected
occurrence and unlike the 1940s, Americans question the acts of Congress
first before supporting them. Patriotism was
taken seriously before WWII but became a part of living during the war.
The only way to stay emotionally sane was to unite as a nation and express
the feelings that everyone felt. An album titled "The Songs That Got Us
Through WWII," as well as hundreds of video documentaries based on the
war years, have been made. The movie stars that reigned as Hollywood royalty
during that time are immediately thought of in relation to the war. There aren't any resources that cover the effects of media during WWII that are better than talking to someone who lived through it. There is a guarantee that any WWII veteran or member of that generation will react when the name of a certain song or movie made during the 1940s is mentioned. It is eerie to think of how the events of a decade, and more specifically of four years, can not only change a generation but change the world as well. In years to come, it will be interesting to see if the terrorist attacks of 2001 will leave a similar impact on the American psyche.
Benson, Scott (Producer/Director). (1994). "The Making of Meet Me In St. Louis" [Film]. (Available on Meet Me In St Louis re-release home video)
"Hollywood
Commandos" [Film] (Available for viewing from American Movie Classics
television) Santa Paula Chronicle (1941, 1942 editions)
"Songs
That Got Us Through WWII" [compact disk]. (1990). Various Artisits
(1941-45). Rhino Records Inc. Sorel, Nancy Caldwell (1999) The Women Who Wrote The War. New York
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