America in 1845 was facing many decisions and problems. Florida became a new star in the American Flag that year (See Flag Above with 26 stars). Early that year Polk was inaugerated President. He guided the issues and their solution through his administration for better or worse, actually better.
The major issue was the conflict with England over Oregon Territory. England claimed that territory down to the California border based upon early French (now French-Canadian) explorations as well as later English establishment of trading posts along the Columbia River. The American claim was based upon the Louisianna Purchase and the travels of Lewis and Clark. America claimed Oregon up to Russian Alaska.
Polk used the battle cry of "54-40 or fight" to focus the issue strongly. The two cojuntries had already fought two wars in 70 years and another would be devastating for the rapidly growing America. They had agreed to Joint Administration of the territory but that favored England since they had the forts.
Another dispute was about Texas. The U.S. recognized Texas as an independent country and Mexico did not. Even though the President of Mexico had signed an agreement for Texas independence at San Jacinto the Mexican Government dismissed that agreement and threatened to invade. The U.S. supported the Texans position.
The U.S. faced the possibility of two wars. Europe at the time believed the U.S. could not win either war. England had a stronger fleet and an empire that circled the globe. Mexico had more land, more people and more wealth although the U.S. had a fleet and was more industrialized.
The first American Colony established in Texas in 1822. Immigration was stopped by Mexico in 1830 becasue of fear of being outnumbered in the population of Texas. In 1834 Santa Anna became dictator in a continueing line of corruption that was abhored by the Mexicans in California as well as the Americans in Texas. It was Mexico's banning of the right to bear arms that started the problems in Texas but there were other concerns.
On February, 24 1836, Wm Barrett Travis, Commander of Alamo, sent a personal call for aid to Americans in Texas and the U.S. Among the Americans who left the safety of the U.S. to fight for freedom were:
Jim Bowie, frontiersman and inventor of the Bowie Knife. This knife, intended for skinning animals had a blade that was 8" long and 1-1/2" wide and was also ideal for fighting men.Davie Crockett, also a frontiersman, was twice elected State Legislator and three times sent to Congress.
The Mexicans decided to send a message to the world. The De Guello was played De Guello means "to cut the throat" in Spanish. It is the battle song of no mercy. No mercy was shown. On March 6, 1836 the Alamo fell and all of the defenders were killed. Over 1600 Mexicans died, only less than 200 Texans did.
Three weeks later at Goliad, 300 Americans were attacked by a Mexican army. The American position was hopeless to defend. They surrendered on the understanding they would not be killed. Nearly all 300 prisoners were killed
In April 2, 1836 at San Jacinto, near the Gulf Coast, Sam Houston led 800 against 1300 Mexicans. The Americans shouted, "Remember the Alamo! Remember Goliad!" The Americans won the battle. Nearly 600 Mexicans were killed but only 8 Americans died. Most important, the Americans captured General Santa Anna, the Presidente of Mexico. General Santa Anna signed the agreement that Texas was Independent which was not accepted by Presidente Santa Anna.
Now it was nearly ten years later and the U.S. and Mexico were still arguing about Texas.
By the end of 1845 the dispute with England seemed to be reaching a peak. The English proposed a compromise for both, accepting the current Canadian border rather than the Columbia River and the Americans accepted the same border rather than 54/40. That crisis passed in early 1846.
Even so, the U.S. Annexed Texas on December 29, 1845 which was the cause of the Mexican American War in '46.
Texas claimed the border with Mexico was at the Rio Grande. Mexico claimed it was further North at the Noches River. The U.S. sent troops under General Taylor to enter Texas and occupy Texas to the Rio Grande. Mexican troops were also in this disputed territory and in April, 1846 the Mexican troops killed several Americans.
War was declared by Congress on May 13 and the U.S. was at war with Mexico from Texas to Oregon. The U.S. Army had 7000 men in the army at the start of the war. Volunteers quickly increased the army to 50,000. Most of them volunteered for one year. This increased the size of the army rapidly but caused problems because the troops did not serve long after training. As their term expired the troops would leave even if a battle was coming up. New replacements might not come for some time. The Generals had to constantly adjust for limits to troops.
The general form of the war was:
Fremont was in California where he assisted American settlers establish The Bear Flag Republic though they did not know the war had started.Several future Presidents and military leaders were in the Mexican American War. Taylor and Grant were to become Presidents of the U.S. while Jefferson Davis was to be President of the Confederacy. Scott and Fremont both were nominated for President. Both Grant and Lee, the final opposing Generals of the Civil War, served in this war as did many others on both sides. The Mexican American War was a prelude to the Civil War.Taylor marched from Rio Grande to Monterey Mexico in quickly in 1846.
Wool marched from San Antonio to Monterey, Mexico in 1846 where he joined with Taylor.
Kearney marched into what is now New Mexico, in 1846. After driving the Mexicans out and fighting the Indians who tried to take advantage of the change, he marched through Arizona to California. He met Carson coming east to report the conquest of California.
Doniphan from Santa Fe into Mex to Buena Vista in 1847. This was one of most rigorous marches ever.
Scot invaded Mexico by sea at Vera Cruz in 1847 and then marched on Mexico City where the war ended.
Ulysses Grant was Army officer in charge of recruit training during the Mexican American War. To build morale and relieve boredom the troops put on entertainment. As part of one of these entertainments, U. S. Grant played the female role, Desdimona, in Shakespeare's Othello making him the only known President to be in drag.
Santa Anna had been deposed as President of Mexico and was in Cuba before war started. Polk arranged with Santa Anna to return to Mexico and overthrow the government with the intent of Santa Anna settling the war. Santa Anna returned to Mexico but never kept his promise. Santa Anna became the President and General for Mexico.
On September 24th Taylor took Monterrey with heavy casulaties. Taylor was critisized for the terms of surrender after this battle. His terms allowed the Mexicans to regroup. It also allowed the Americans to do the same. Taylor had expected Mexico to consider surrender after the decisive victory. The Mexicans had substantial losses plus large numbers of deserters. Most Mexicans did not want to fight for the corrupt Santa Anna. The Mexicans did not surrender but rested and reformed for defence instead.
General Wool was originally to go from San Antonio to Chihuahua but was reordered to go to Monterrey after it fell.
Kearney left Ft. Leavenworth for Santa Fe with Doniphon to capture the remainder of Mexican Territory in the North. Santa Fe fell easily. Kearney left Doniphan and went to California not knowing that the Californians had revolted and formed the Bear Flag Republic. That war wasn't over though.
In New Mexico the Indians took advantage of the change in Government and attacked the settlers which were mostly Mexican but also a large number of Americans. Donophon settled with Indians. When new volunteer soldiers arrived arrived as relief, Donophon left for Chihuahua to meet Wool. He was unaware that Wool's orders were changed. Doniphon Captured El Paso then marched into Mexico.
Doniphon's soldiers marched through desert for 250 miles before they arrived at Chihuahua in February, 1847 Doniphon had 1000 men to attack 3000 Mexicans but he won in 3 hours. Doniphon waited for orders then went to Saltillo. After their one year as volunteers was up the men returned home.
Kearney met Carson coming east. Carson told him about the new American Government in California. Kearney, believing the Mexicans were pacified in California, sent some troops back and marched on. As he approached San Pasqual just Northeast of San Diego he met a force of Mexican troops, mostly settlers. Kearney attacked and the Mexicans retreated. Kearney pressed his attack but was surprised by a trap of Mexican Cavalry lieing in wait. Kearney took terrible losses and was surrounded. He sent Carson with two other men to get to San Diego to notify Stockton. This patrol had to cross three layers of Mexican lines leaving San Pasqual, walk nearly a 100 miles and then cross the lines surrounding San Diego.
Carson and the others made it to Stockton and had troops sent to relieve Kearney. Kearney joined Stockton in San Diego, left few troops and marched to Los Angeles. On January 10, 1847 California surrendered. Fremont signed the peace treaty.
Fremont was named military governor by Stockton but when Stockton left, Kearney ordered Fremont to Washington D.C. where Fremont was Court Marshalled for insubordination. Polk overturned this verdict.
Scott was ordered to land troops in Mexico. He selected Vera Cruz as the landing location. Scott was a careful man and this landing was ambitious. He delayed to carefully plan for 15,000 troops and transport.
Scott first went to Monterey to meet Taylor but Taylor was in the field. Scott told Taylor he was taking 8000 and leaving 5000 troops. He sent two letters; one was captured by the Mexicans. Santa Anna marched toward Saltillo for a surprise attack on a weakened Taylor. But Taylor moved south for a better position at Aqua Nueva. While waiting the soldiers drank and an Arkansas volunteer was killed. His friends, claiming to find his property in a nearby villiage, killed 30 women and children.
Taylor ordered the companies of volunteers sent back in disgrace for this atrocity and for not telling who was involved. They were never sent because Santa Anna arrived.
When Santa Anna came, Taylor retreated to Buena Vista setting up a defense on the ridge. It was a strong position but Taylor was concerned about flanking. He left for Saltillo to defend supply lines and get reinforcements. Americans won the battle with great casualties on both sides. Mexican losses were also due to desertion.
In November 1846 the U.S. Navy took over the Port of Tampico where troops taken from Taylor and those from the U.S. assembled to prepare for the landings at Vera Cruz.
Scott landed at Vera Cruz on March 9, 1847, fearful of Yellow Fever which was just coming into season. The Mexican did not oppose the landings. Scott surrounded and laid siege to the city which was well defended with thick city walls. Army cannons were too light to break through the walls. Commodore Matthew Perry suggested using heavier Navy Cannons. With the Navy Cannons the walls were breached and on March 29 the city Surrendered.
In April Scott moved west. Near Jalapa was a canyon called Cerro Gordo through which the road wound. Lee's men built path to flank the Mexican forts on hills. Scott captured Cerro Gordo, the road to Mexico City, $20,000 gold from Sant Anna and Santa Anna's wooden leg.
There was a minor battle at Puebla but mostly the army waited for supplies from Vera Cruz to catch up. Mexican bandits attacked the supply wagons so troops had to be assigned to defend the road and the wagons.
While they waited, Santa Anna asked for $1 million to surrender with a $10,000 downpayment. Scott couldn't ask for money for a bribe but the lives to be saved were worth $1 million. So he took the $10,000 from military funds. But again, Santa Anna double crossed the Americans and didn't surrender. Instead he used the money to enlist more troops. Scott had no choice but to march on Mexico City.
Scott was outnumbered 3 to 1 by the Mexicans. He decided not to leave defenders for his supply route and instead to take all the troops with him. He had no way to retreat. Everyone thought he would lose.
Santa Anna was set up on the two routes to Mexico City, both with impregnable positions. Scott found a route to the second way to the city. Santa Anna had to move his troops to block Scott. Scott built a road over night for wagons which led over a barren lava field and the surprised defenders were routed. Again, Santa Anna was outflanked and had to withdraw into Mexico City.
Scott agreed to a truce for two weeks but Santa Anna used it to rest and dig in, then he refused any terms.
At the following battle at King's Mill the Mexicans slit the throats of American wounded. Now King's Mill joined Goliad and the Alamo in the battle cry of the Americans.
The last obstacle to entry into Mexico City was the Castle at Chapultapec. On September 12, 1847, a propitious day in later history, the aasult on Chapultapec began. Some of the Mexican defenders were teenage boys in a military school. The defenders including the boys decided to fight to the end. This was a noble defense but unnecessary had Santa Anna honored his agreements.
Chapultepec Castle was defended by some young cadets from the Military Acadamy, "Los Ninos," and mostly by American Deserters, "San Patricios" Battalion, who were fighting for their lives. This battle is one of history's great tragedies. The American's won. The tragedy was that the deserters fought to the death because they were going to die anyway. But the Ninos also died and became, legitimately, heroes. Their youth at the death created pity and then anger about the American attack. None of this was Scott's fault. The "Los Patricios" Battalion'scowardice created a lasting enmity that has poisoned relations since. The "San Patricios" Battalion are one of history's great villains! After capture, for they did not "fight to the death" as had "Los Ninos," the "San Patricios" were hung.
Santa Anna escaped. A treaty for peace was negotiated with the new government.
Finally, on February 2, 1848 the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed. On March 10 the U.S. Senate ratified the treaty and on March 25 the Mexican Government ratified it. The war was over.
Why did the U.S. win the war, especially so easily? There are three reasons to be learned from this war.
The Rio Grande became the border of Texas. New Mexico and California were now American. The U.S. paid Mexico $15 million for 500 thousand acres.
During the war, 13,000 Americans died, mostly from disease. There were a large percentage of deserters, mostly volunteer immigrants.
Many people believe the treaty required the U.S. to publish laws in Spanish. It did not. It did provide for Mexicans living in territory ceded to the U.S. to be allowed to retain their culture for one year while they decided whether to remain or return to Mexico. The treaty provided similarly for Americans living in Mexico. After that year was up the Mexicans forced Americans to become Catholics to remain in Mexico so many left. The U.S. of course did not require a religious change for Mexicans but there is no obligation to promote Mexican Culture in the U.S.
Santa Anna was exiled after the war but he later was to unbelievably become President again and then finnaly exiled again and for the last time.
Scott had become too popular to the public so Polk had him investigated and the $10,000 bribe was found out. Scott was recalled.
Everything was in place for the Civil War to begin a decade later.
A great debate raged about slavery in the new territories. The agricultural South feared the new territories were not suitable for use of slave labor and would be admitted to the Union as Free States. If outnumbered in the House and Senate, the Free States could abolish slavery by law. The industrial North saw slavery as the enemy of
During the 1850s the arguing in the western territories turned to fighting. Bloody Kansas, not to mention Bloody Missouri, were symbols of how deeply feelings ran.
The attention of the U.S. turned also to the new west. The Oregon Trail was filled every summer with emigrants for Oregon or California. Settlements began in the territories beyond the frontier. Civilization arrived however slowly with the start of the Pony Express and then the Telegraph.
California particularly did well. Gold was discovered on January 24, 1848 and the Rush was on. People arrived who were industrious, active, demanding of excellance and able. Soon there were large cities built, steamships on the rivers, farms producing crops in addition to the cattle although they were still raised.
It was more than gold that financed this growth although it may have attracted it. The wealth really came from the production of food and industrial products that has not stopped. Americans came to work and to build. They founded schools, churches, brought in arts and entertainments. Roads were built, trees were cut and hauled to the saw mill then used to build homes. Ocean Commerce thrived. Uncorrupted government arrived and swelled the growth. The gold provided capital at first but soon the economic growth from other production fueled growth, even after the gold ran out.
The entire west grew. Arizona and New Mexico became industrious states rather than sleepy subsistance areas. Similar growth was in Texas, Oregon and Nevada. The Mexican American War created opportunities that had always been there but were unrecognized.
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