The influence of Theravada Buddhism on culture in Burma and the rest of Southeast Asia.

INTRODUCTION

Religion plays a significant role in the daily lives of mankind. The doctrine stated by a religion influences the mentality of a person. When a community of people follows the same religion, their way of life becomes a reflection of their religion. When the way of life in a community involves customs, arts and social institutions, it becomes a culture. Therefore, religion can be important in shaping the culture of a society. However, the way a culture is can also decide which religion is incorporated and how this religion is modified to fit the people. Such influences can be seen in Theravada Buddhism among the Burmese. Although, like in the rest of Southeast Asia, different world religions and indigenous religions coexist with each other, Theravada Buddhism is most popular and is clearly the state religion in Burma. 85% of the Burmese people are Buddhists (Singh, 1980). Theravada Buddhism is also the world religion to have the longest history in Burma and in the process, has the largest degree of influence on the culture. The doctrine teaches the Burmese certain values regarding codes of ethic, family life, and world view.

HISTORY OF CULTURE AND THERAVADA BUDDHISM IN BURMA

In Burma, the first kingdom was the Pyu, dating back to the beginning of the Christian era (Steinberg, 1982). During the Pyu kingdom, the culture was more related to the Tibetan culture, where Mahayana Buddhism was more prevalent. The Pyus laid some grounds for the Burmese culture. Lasting from first century to ninth century A.D., the Pyu kingdom had capitals in Beikthano, Srikshetra (Prome) and Halin. The Pyus were richly cultured in stone carving, metal work, pottery, weaving, music and dance (Htut, 1997). The Tang dynasty (A.D. 618 -- 907) records in China complimented on the high level of culture among the Pyu (Htut, 1997). Singh (1980) states that the Pyu kingdom was conquered by the Nanchao in the eighth century, approximately during the time when the Tibeto-Burmans from southern China arrived. These Burmese established their city at Pagan in 849 A.D.

When Pagan was first built, there was no political organization. The society was mainly made up of family units, and the tribal organization was the constitution of the villages (Singh, 1980). Indian ideas were soon introduced into Pagan, while kings rose due to the Burmese's concerns with the escape from social chaos, and their need for proper judiciary system (Cady, 1958). The first king of Pagan was Anawratha Minn (1044-1077). He was an Indian prince who migrated to Pagan. However, it should be duly noted that the ruler was of Indian origin, while the common people were of Burmese origin . Anawratha Minn (Minn means king in Burmese) was the first unifier of Burma (Singh, 1980). Steinberg (1982) states that Anawratha Minn moved south in 1057 to conquer Thanton, the Mon capital. The Mon kingdom had existed before the Pagan era, dating back into the period of the Pyus. Mons were closely associated with Ceylon, where Theravada Buddhist culture had been flourishing (Steinberg, 1982). A Mon monk, Shin Arahan, converted Anawratha Minn to Theravada Buddhism. The king was eager to spread his new faith to his subjects, thus invaded Thanton to obtain the Buddhist scriptures kept there. As a result, the Mons were relocated into Pagan as the empire expanded (Keyes, 1995). Therefore, Theravada Buddhism in the Burmese culture began its history in Pagan. The conquest of the Mons not only introduced their religion, but also their culture into the pre-existing Burmese culture. The temples in Pagan were architecturally of Mon style. The Mon language, along with Pali language from the scriptures of Theravada Buddhism, were incorporated into the Burmese language. Pyu language was also adopted since the Pyus had laid the foundation for the Burmese. In Pagan, a cetiya called Myazedi has stone inscriptions of Pyu, Burmese, Mon and Pali on each side. It was prepared by Rayakumar at 1112 A.D. (Bradley, 1988).

The Pagan Empire was invaded by Kublai Khan in 1287, thus its glory was lost (Singh, 1980). However, Theravada Buddhism strive through several wars and dynasties that followed the fall of Pagan. Theravada Buddhism remained the state religion as it was maintained by the monarchy. After the Anglo-Burmese Wars in 1824-1826 and 1852, Thibaw Minn of the Konbaung dynasty (1752 -- 1885) surrendered Burma into British colonial rule in 1885. Two years later, Thibaw Minn and his royal family were deported to India (Singh, 1980). The deportation marked the end of the monarchy system of ruling in Burma. Such an end raised a problem to Theravada Buddhism as a state religion. The British were Christians, and their missionaries introduced Christianity into the hill tribes who were either of indigenous religion or atheism. The Buddhist monks did not access these tribes in hope of conversion for two main reasons. First, it was not the Buddhist nature to convert those of another religion. Secondly, the Buddhist Burmese did not have the resources to travel into the remote mountain regions, unlike their British counterparts (Cady, 1958). During the colonial rule, the Sangha (the constitution of monks) disintegrated without the support of a monarchy that once held them together (Singh, 1980). The British did not respect the Buddhist traditions in Burma, angering the Burmese nationalists. As Singh (1980) suggests, the incident of the British refusal to remove their shoes in Pagodas and other religious places in Burma was the beginning of a nationalist movement. Therefore, religion played a role in the national unity of Burma during colonial rule. Burmese used Theravada Buddhism in the identification of their nation (Steinberg, 1982). Burma is known to be called "the Land of Pagodas". Being Burmese was indistinguishable from being Buddhist in the same as being Malay is indistinguishable from being Muslim in Malaysia.

INFLUENCES OF THERAVADA BUDDHISM ON CULTURE

The influences of Theravada Buddhism on the Burmese culture include language, moral values and world view. The following sections will discuss in detail how each aspect has been affected by the religion.
Language

Several Burmese words are derived from Pali -- the language used in Theravada Buddhist scriptures. Pali was not a true language in a sense that it was never actually spoken or written except in the context of Buddhism. Pali was evolved in Sri Lanka to be used for the writings of Buddhist scriptures in a neutral language that did not allow any bias as to Buddha's true origin. Some examples of Pali-derived Burmese words are pyinnar (Panna in Pali) which means knowledge or talent, myitthar (Metta in Pali) which means loving kindness, dutiya (Dutiyam in Pali) which means second, and doatkha (Dukkha in Pali) which means suffering or problem. However, the derivation of the Pali words into Burmese are not random. The words that represent the fundaments of Theravada Buddhism were mostly the ones chosen to be differentiated into the Burmese language.

The influence of Theravada Buddhism on the Burmese language was not only the incorporation of Pali words, but also the manner of spoken language. The Theravada Buddhists pay respect to the five Anandorananda -- mainly Buddha, Dhamma, Sangha, Mathamitha, and Asariya, in that order. Mathamitha means the parents in Pali, and Asariya means the teachers. Since the religion teaches respect to the more educated (as part of the Asariya) and the elders (as part of the Mathamitha), courteous manner of language is always used for addressing such people. "You" and "I" are rarely used in speech unless speaking to ones younger than the self. "Sir", "Uncle" or "Elder Brother" is used for addressing males, while "Madam", "Aunt" or "Elder Sister" is used for females. When having a conversation with a member of the Sangha, the Burmese address the monk as "Your Holiness", while referring to the self as "Your Holiness pupil". The reason for such manners is because the monks live an example of a meritous life, thus making them noble and such requires respect from the laypeople (Khaing, 1962). Special language usage is seen when speaking to monks and nuns, such as "good-bye" is not used, instead "excuse my leave" has to be used.

Way of life
Buddhism is based on karma and the escape from samsara (cycle of death and rebirth) through nibbana. The religion emphasizes virtues of mankind. Therefore, the doctrine Dhamma teaches not to do any evil, while cultivating good and purifying one's mind (Janakhabhivamsa, 1991). The Dhamma promotes the Noble Eightfold Pathway consisting of sila (morality) in right speech, right action and right livelihood, samadhi (concentration) in right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration, and panna (wisdom) in right understanding and thoughts (Thera, 1982). The Burmese follow these Noble Eightfold Paths and the Five Precepts (abstinence from killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, false speech, and liquor and intoxicants) in their daily lives. As discussed above, right speech is used to address and refer to in conversation. The additions to proper conversational manners are the exclusion of vulgarity, deception (the fourth of the five precepts) and gossip. Right action refers to the deeds done in everyday life, such as abstinence from killing, stealing and sexual misconduct -- the first three of the Five Precepts (Thera, 1982). The focus on sexual misconduct can be seen in the daily Burmese life when unmarried couples (and sometimes to the extend of married couples) do not engage themselves in public display of affections beyond holding hands, so as to avoid crossing the line between appropriate and inappropriate sexual conduct. Young couples who date late into the night are held in much contempt by the general Burmese community. Thera (1982) states that right livelihood means the avoidance of any job that requires the trade of arms, men and animals for slaughter or harm to others, alcohol and drugs, and poisons. In Theravada Buddhism, killing is a sin that will condemn the lay-people with bad karma for their reincarnation after death. Therefore, any matter that provides an opportunity for killing of another being, may that be through action or trade, is forbidden. The Burmese strongly hold on to this belief. During the Konbaung dynasty, the brother of Thibaw Minn was denied his right to the throne by the ministers and the Buddhist monks, because the prince experimented bombs and war weapons on the animals in the river.

Right effort, in Theravada Buddhism, is to discard and prevent evil, while promoting and developing good (Thera, 1982). The Burmese follow this path by helping and encouraging those who have potential to succeed, and punishing or salvaging those who do wrong. For instance, a relative may provide care and accommodations for a diligent youth who leaves his/her hometown for his/her relative's town in search of a better education or career. On many occasions, even a family friend or a distant acquaintance is willing to help out. Thera (1982) states that when one is constantly aware and in control of one's own body, feelings, thoughts and mental states, right mindfulness is achieved. This aspect is expressed in the Burmese commonly by non-impulsive actions. For example, bargaining and reconsideration is very common while making decisions in the Burmese culture. Right concentration follows right mindfulness. It is the focusing of the mind, usually through meditation (Thera, 1982). Meditation plays a huge role in the Burmese life. Many Burmese, both young and old, retreat into monasteries for a temporary period of meditation before special occasions such as the Burmese New Year, weddings, birthdays, examination dates and so forth. They become yogi (meditators) during such a time.

Education is highly valued among the Burmese. This is due to the path of right understanding which is realization of the true nature of any process (Janakabhivasam, 1995). In order to realize true natures, one must be knowledgeable, and to attain knowledge, one must be educated. Education can be through school or experiences. This is also the factor as to why Burmese view elders who are more experienced as more respectful and wise. Right thought is directing the mind to the object of focus (Janakabhivamsa, 1995). With direction, idle-ness is omitted in daily life. Hence idleness is uncommon in the Burmese culture. As Hall (1906) suggests, there is not a Burmese who is idle. The Burmese are known to be hardworkers. Being idle is often disapproved of among the Burmese. Four of the Precepts (abstinence from killing, stealing, sexual misconduct and false speech) are mentioned in the Noble Eightfold Pathway. However, the last precept -- abstinence from liquor and intoxicants, although not included, plays a role in the Burmese life. Liquors and intoxicants are avoided so as not to cloud the mind (Nash, 1965). A clear mind is necessary to follow the fundaments of Buddhism and obtain good karma, in order to attain nibbana eventually. Such a precept is coherent with the notion of the path of samadhi. Indeed, it is almost a taboo to acknowledge that one drinks liquor in Burma.

Rite of Passage
One interesting ceremony that should be mentioned is the Shinbyu or the noviciation ceremony. Young Burmese boys have to enter monkshood at least once for a few days to a few months in their lives (Khaing, 1962). During this period, young Burmese boys learn the Buddhist scriptures and way of life. Shinbyu is a prestigious affair for the Burmese people, especially to those who are well-to-do. The young boy, who is to be a novice, dresses up as Prince Gautama before his enlightenment into Buddhahood. The re-enactment of Buddha's enlightenment is done through noviciation into a young monk (Swearer, 1981). Once a novice, all friends and relatives pay their respect to the young boy. Gifts or alms are donated to the novice. A lunch for the mass is given by the parents of the novice. It is an honor for the parents to be able to initiate their sons into Buddhism. Young girls may play a role by joining the noviciation through na-tha-pwe or the ear-piercing ceremony. As the name suggests, the young girls have their ears pierced while they are dressed up as Burmese princesses. It is not mandatory that young girls have their ears pierced during a shinbyu ceremony. However, it is compulsory for a Burmese boy to be initiated into Buddhism through such a ceremony in order to truly identify himself as Burmese.

In conclusion, much of the Burmese language and way of life have been influenced by Theravada Buddhism. Their thoughts and views on moral issues and traditions are like a mirror reflection of the doctrine. Since the religion teaches anatta (not-self) and virtues, modesty, generosity and high moral standards become integrated strongly into the Burmese culture.

COMPARISON TO THE REST OF SOUTHEAST ASIA

Much of mainland Southeast Asian culture has been influenced by Theravada Buddhism in a similar way to the extend that Burma has been influenced. In Laos, Theravada Buddhism influences much of the Laotian culture. As suggested by Abhay and Kene (1958), the Laotian’s faith is in the law of Buddhism. Furthermore, the Five Precepts of Theravada Buddhism are also heeded by the Thais. Mole (1973) states that knowing the Thai Buddhist beliefs and practices can be an insight to the values and behavior in Thailand. In Thailand, individualism is stressed. Reliance on one's own hardwork is common. Individualism is also apparent in Laotian culture (Abhay and Kene, 1958). In Cambodia, Buddhism is essential to the culture and civilization due to the contributions of the Sangha. To many Khmers, the Buddhist monasteries are symbols of their soul and identity (Sam, 1987). The Sangha teaches morality to many Khmer boys while in the monasteries. Parents are eager to send their children to Buddhist schools to train them and educate them, in similar ways that young boys are ordinated into monkshood through noviciation in Burma and Thailand (Swearer, 1981). In Laos, a custom that is parallel to the Buddhist education of young boys in Combodia, Burma and Thailand is practiced. When a Laotian boy reaches an age of ten, he lives in the pagoda to serve the monks and in doing so, learns the prayers and discipline (Abhay and Kene, 1958). Sam (1987) suggests that Khmers respect their Buddhist doctrine of peace and non-violence. As discussed in the previous section, Burmese are also non-violent. This similarity is common in Theravada Buddhist cultures. Khmers who are afraid to kill, choose to farm as their major source of livelihood (Sam, 1987). This is evident in Buddhist Southeast Asian nations as they are mostly agricultural. The doctrine that teaches non-violence results in promoting tolerance. Thus, such tolerance can be seen in Laos when the Laotian waits patiently for his/her making of his/her rounds for propaganda (Abhay and Kene, 1958).

Although Theravada Buddhism promotes individualism in salvation and hard work, it denounces egoism (Janakabhivasam, 1991). Selfless-ness is encouraged. Such a code of ethic is evident in Burmese generosity, and is also prevalent in the Buddhist Southeast Asia. Many donations are given to monasteries, and parents sacrifice their well-being for their children's good in the Laotian culture (Abhay and Kene, 1958). This extension of selfless-ness can be contributed to the sense of community in Theravada Buddhist cultures. This is also one of the factors why Theravada Buddhism plays a role in nationalism. For example, Swearer (1981) states that U Nu, the first Prime Minister of Burma, uses the grounds of Theravada Buddhist belief in unselfish interests to promote community wellness for basis of welfare for his state. In Cambodia, Buddhist Socialism is used to strive towards national identification (Sam, 1987).

In conclusion to the influence of Theravada Buddhism on culture in Burma and the rest of Southeast Asia, it can clearly be seen from the practices and values of the Burmans, Thais, Laotians and Khmers that the religion is essential to their personal and national identity. The doctrine is expressed in the daily customs and traditions followed by these Southeast Asian cultures. The vast lands of Pagodas and temples standing all over Burma and the mainland Southeast Asian nations clearly indicates that the people hold their state religion with pride and high regard. This is understandable since Theravada Buddhism not only shaped the psychology and behaviors of the people in the region, it also shaped the history and politics. In doing so, the unique culture of Theravada Buddhist Southeast Asia has been molded.

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