Newspaper clippings of

European disease brought to North America

Researched by Kenny Morin

Leader of the Red River Half Breed Indian Nation

Native's cure saves crew

Indians show explorers the virtues of the white cedar tree in curing scurvy.

March 1536

STADACONA [Quebec City] - An Indian is being credited with saving up to 75 of explorer Jacques Cartier's crew from scurvy. About 25 of his 110 men had already died and only 10 were well when Cartier approached Domagaya, son of Stadacona Chief Donnacona, this month to learn about his recent recovery from what appeared to be an attack of scurvy.

When Cartier told Domagaya his servant had scurry, the native informed him of the remedy annedda, made from the bark of common white cedar. Domapaya sent two women to gather the cedar and to show the French how to brew a cure. Within a week of drinking the cure all of Cartier’s men recovered. Some suffering from syphillis say it helped relieve that ailment too.

More than 1,000 Indians greet Jacques Cartier at Hochelaga, in 1535. The French explorer is impressed as this town is bigger than Stadacona with about 50 longhouses and many well-cultivated cornfields.

The winter has been particularly hard on Cartier and his men. His ships have been locked in ice since November and more than four feet of snow have fallen. Despite all attempts to protect themselves, scurvy which first inflicted the Indians has invaded the French camp.

While Cartier prayed before an image of the Virgin Mary and vowed to make a pilgrimage if his men were cured, the scurvy continued to ravage the crew until Domagaya's cure set in. Before he approached Domagaya, fear of an Indian attack led Cartier to mask the desperate conditions of his men.

Native funeral rites use European goods

Illustration of native funeral procession which includes a dance ceremony. c.1600

GREAT LAKES REGION - The Iroquoian peoples around the Great Lakes are increasingly burying their dead along with iron knives, axes and glass beads from Europe. The Iroquoians associate these exotic goods with health and success after death and equip the deceased with them to use in the afterlife, thought to be very similar to this one. They also regard the buried objects as natural substances from the earth, which should rightly be returned to the earth.

The Iroquoians do not appear to discriminate against lower classes in. their burial rites. The prized beads and iron articles are placed in the graves of ordinary tribesmen as well as chiefs and their families. But there is sexual discrimination. The Senecans, for example, bury more tools and beads with men and children than with women.

Through intertribal trade, European glass and iron goods began reaching the Iroquoians in the last century. With the growth of the fur trade since 1580, more of the objects have reached them. But most are disposed of in funerals. Rarely arc they used in daily life.

There are other distinctive features of Iroquoian burials. The dead are interred with their heads pointed to the west. This practice is probably related to the traditional Iroquoian belief that the land of the dead is in the west.

Natives fall victim to deadly disease

1636-37

NEW FRANCE - A deadly epidemic of influenza has spread south from the St. Lawrence Valley and killed many Hurons. Influenza is one of several diseases of European origin the Huron have been exposed to, and they lack a natural immunity to it. This epidemic is the severest yet, and their religious leaders and curing societies have be-n powerless against it. The Hurons, ill and suspicious, refuse such French medical treatments as bloodletting, and have begun to speculate that European witchcraft has caused their misfortune.

Epidemic stirs suspicion

1637

HURON COUNTRY - The Huron are growing more and more hostile toward Jesuit missionaries as an epidemic of influenza cuts its deadly swath through the nation's land. The European disease, only recently introduced to the continent, is attacking the Hurons at an alarming rate - particularly the younger Indians and elder members of the tribe. Lacking a cure, the epidemic has given rise to renewed Huron suspicions of white men in general and Father Jean de Brébeuf and his fellow Jesuits in particular.

Brébeuf and a handful of Jesuits have been working in Huron territory since reopening the mission in 1634. While their efforts to convert Hurons to Christianity have met little success, an air of tolerance and co-operation has developed between the Jesuits and the Indians despite fundamental differences in religious and social values. With the influenza epidemic causing the Hurons to die around them, the Jesuits are working frantically to baptize all they can. Many of those they do baptize are too far gone to protest.

The sight of a healthy Jesuit, apparently immune from contagion, administering rites to a native who dies soon after, has caused many Huron to view the ceremony as an act of sorcery. Consequently, many Huron villages arc now baring the `white shamans." The Indians' religious leaders have stirred up the animosity toward the Jesuits with fanatical zeal punctuated by calls for violent action against the missionaries.

Iroquois kill Jesuit priest and aide for

"Spreading smallpox"

Oct. 18, 1646

IROQUOIS COUNTRY [New York State] - The Iroquois' mystification with the latest smallpox epidemic turned ugly today. The Mohawks killed Father Isaac Jogues, blaming the Jesuit priest for spreading the epidemic. A hatchet blow to the head ended Jogues' life. He was 39. Of all the infectious diseases plaguing the Iroquois, smallpox is the deadliest. It first hit then in 1634, taking hundreds of native lives since then.

Jogues was in Iroquois country on a peace mission - his second of the year. He met the Mohawks in May and departed on good terms a month later, leaving behind a box filled with clothes, sacred vessels and gifts for the natives. When Jogues and his aide Jean de La Lande returned last month, the Mohawks gave them a hostile reception. Both were taken prisoner. The box confirmed Iroquois suspicions about the epidemic's cause. Jogues was accused of spreading smallpox by hiding certain charms in it. The Iroquois also blamed him for the drought and famine which followed the missionary's first visit. He was put to death as a sorcerer and La Lande was also killed.

Jogues is no stranger to Iroquois attacks. The natives ambushed a mission he was on in 1642. After that attack, the Iroquois took Jogues prisoner and tortured him.

Smallpox epidemics take toll on natives

1670 NEW FRANCE - The devastating effects of smallpox on the native population in New France cannot be underestimated. Since smallpox was first reported in New France in 1634, it has claimed thousands of lives. One of the most recent smallpox epidemics in 1662 killed more than 1,000 Iroquois.

In one of the earliest and most deadly epidemics, smallpox hit the St. Lawrence Valley in 1639 and killed hundreds of natives trading at Quebec City and Trois-Rivières. That epidemic alone practically halved the Huron population, reducing it to some 9,000 people.

Disease ravages Louisbourg; 480 dead

April 1746

LOUISBOURG, Ile-Royale - Scores of New England volunteers occupying the conquered fortress at Louisbourg have died from fever, scurvy and the bloody flux. Recent estimates put the death toll at 480.

One soldier reports that "putrid fevers and dysentrys" have been killing people "like rotten sheep." Unsanitary living conditions and a shortage of fresh food are chiefly responsible for the contagion. Gen. William Pepperrell himself is suffering from rheumatic fever, but observers say only his devotion to his men has prevented mutiny in the demoralized garrison.

French pass typhus to Micmac Indians

1746

ANNAPOLIS ROYAL, N.S. - Up to three-quarters of Micmac Indians in western Nova Scotia may have perished from typhus, reports reaching Annapolis Royal this winter indicate.

The Micmac gathered last summer at Chebucto harbor to join Duc d'Anville's expedition against Louisbourg and Boston. Storms delayed d'Anville's fleet, sinking numerous ships and taking many lives. Some survivors who reached Chebucto suffered from scurvy and typhus. At least 1,135 French died. Their clothing and personal items were given to Indians who also contracted typhus and spread it to other Micmac communities.

Killing Indians by smallpox proposed

Fort Niagara, July 13, 1763

Informed sources say General Jeffrey Amherst, British commander of colonial forces on the Great Lakes frontier, recently "rote a vice commander, Colonel Henry Bouquet, advising him to try to inoculate Chief Pontiac's rebellious Indians with smallpox by means of infected blankets. The questionable ethics of this form of warfare have caused alarm in some quarters, and Colonel Bouquet is said to have advised General Amherst that the tactic could backfire by spreading the feared disease among British soldiers and citizens. Others, however, are supporting the proposal (-31).

Amherst: proposes blanket solution.

Smallpox epidemic hits natives hard

1781

FORT PASKOYAC [The Pas, Manitoba) - A smallpox epidemic which last year spread as far north as the Saskatchewan River system has reached the Athabasca Region and the Barren Grounds.

The native population is highly susceptible to this disease. Explorer-fur trader Samuel Hearne reports it may have killed up to 90 percent of the Chipewyans in the Barren Grounds.

Syphilis targeting Quebec population

1786

QUEBEC CITY - Sexual promiscuity can kill you. People here have discovered this the hard way, as so many fall victim to the syphilis that has raged through the colony for a decade. Syphilis is transmitted through sexual intercourse. The strain of the disease in Quebec is highly contagious and known by various names - Mal de la Baie St.

Paul, Mal Anglois, Lustu Crue.

The symptoms of syphilis are hideous and unmistakable. It begins with open sores on the face. Facial bones break down, hair falls out, and lips swell. The stench increases "till universal putrefaction ends the existence of the unfortunate sufferer." Those who survive its ravages are perhaps unluckier than those who die. They live on “under the united miseries of an injured constitution and a mutilated frame."

Most doctors agree the plague is a venereal disease, but a few disagree, claiming it is a form of pox.

Vaccine fights smallpox in Newfoundland

1805

NEWFOUNDLAND - Much of the island has been inoculated against smallpox since Dr. John Clinch administered one of the first vaccinations in North America at Trinity Bay in 1798. Four years later, Clinch wrote: "I began by inoculating my own children and went on with this salutary work till I had inoculated 700 persons."

Newfoundlanders can thank an old school buddy of Clinch's, Dr. Edward Jenner, who invented the vaccination in London. Jenner found that fluid from cows infected with cowpox prevented smallpox when injected in humans. He told Clinch about his findings, and sent him threads of vaccine.

Duke of Richmond succumbs to rabies

Aug. 28, 1819

RICHMOND, [Near Ottawa] The Duke of Richmond, governor in chief of Canada, ha died. His death is a release from days of fits and physical suffering believed to be caused by rabies.

Sources close to the duke say h, probably contracted the disease, two months ago, while touring For William Henry in Lower Canada While on the parade ground, h, went to the rescue of his dog, which was fighting a pet fox. The fox bit him deeply in his hand. Although the wound bled profusely, the duke laughed off the injury and continued with his tour.

The symptoms started to show few days ago. On one day, the duke was full of energy, walking 24 kilo metres in a stretch. The next, hi was exhausted. And at a tavern or the 26th he said to an aide, "I fee that if I were a dog I should be shot as a mad one." Finally, his condition having worsened, the duke came to a small Richmond farm house where he mercifully died.

Devastating cholera epidemic ravages colonies

Quarantine station to check for cholera

Feb. 25, 1832

QUEBEC CITY - A quarantine station to curb the spread of cholera into Lower Canada will be set up at Grosse Isle, 48 kilometres below Quebec. Legislation making the station law, known as the Quarantine Act, was passed today.

The station will monitor passengers on incoming ships from England. The ships are to stop at a point marked with buoys for inspection and if any passenger or crew, member has been in contact with the disease. the vessel is to be brought in to anchor. Cholera victims will he plated under quarantine on the isle. Before a ship is allowed to sail above Grosse Isle to Quebec. A certificate of health must he issued. At Quebec, another inspection is to take place.

CHOLERA BULLETIN

TO the President of the Board of Health of the Gore District

Sir--I have this morning received a communication from Doct. GILPIN of Brantford, stating he was called to visit. Three cases, which be considers exhibited characters of Spasmodic Cholera. One case, a man by the name of Young, proved fatal in 8 hours. The other two were convalescent when Doctor Gilpin writes.

The following ie a report I submit to the Board of Health, on the above cases:

Casse of CHOLERA In the Gore District, from June 28, ta ' June 25, inclusive-

Brantford, Cases THREE, Death 1, Convalescent 2.,

(Signed) SLADE ROBINSON,

Pres't Medical Board

Hamilton, June 27,1832.

This Cholercı Bulletin shows epidemics effect oıı Caııadian communities.

Disease spreading, Upper Canada hit

June 16, 1832

PRESCOTT. Upper Canada - The cholera epidemic struck Upper Canada today with the first case reported here. The dreaded fatal disease is following the path of immigrant ships coming from the British Isles. +there it had spread from Europe late last year. While the first three ships to arrive this spring all lost passengers to the disease, there was no epidemic until the Carricks arrived from Dublin, Ireland, earlier this month.

Despite the fact that 42 passengers had died en route, the ship was allowed through Grosse Isle's quarantine station below Quebec. Her passengers sailed on to Montreal on another ship, where the first case of cholera was reported a week ago.

Authorities’ believe the crowded, unsanitary conditions on immigrant ships, coupled with the fact they're coming from places already under the siege of cholera, are making a bad situation worse. Symptoms include an intermittent and slow pulse, a sick stomach, vomiting and color changes by the entire body, ranging from bluish purple to deep brown or black, depending on the complexion.

Church bells silent as epidemic sets in

June 14, 1832

QUEBEC CITY - The cholera epidemic has this community in so much fear officials have decided to discontinue the ringing of church bells to mark the death of victims it is hoped the move will help curb the despair that has become widespread. Cholera was first reported here last week, with eight cases being recorded in the first day. All eight were immigrants and three of them died.

Filthy ships blamed as cholera spreads

Dec. 15, 1834

MONTREAL - A report by the Special Sanitary Committee of Montreal blames ship owners and captains, who subject passengers in their vessels to filthy conditions, for the cholera epidemic which has claimed nearly one-tenth of the province's population since 1832.

The report concludes: "Common avarice has led many captains, owners and agents in the seaport towns of Ireland into a most horrible traffic in human life."

Typhus takes toll: hundreds of Irish die on way to N.B.

December 1847

SAINT JOHN, N.B. - The latest influx of immigrants is over, and people here are wondering what has hit them. Since May, a record 16,251 immigrants have landed in New Brunswick, almost all of them from Ireland. Some 2,115 immigrants have died in this time, 823 during the crossing, 601 at the Partridge Island quarantine station off Saint John, and the rest elsewhere in the colony. It is a tragedy unprecedented in the colony's short history, threatening to cripple the society the loyalists built after first arriving here in 1783.

Partridge Island has resembled a scene from Dante's Inferno over the past months, as sick immigrants, many suffering from typhus, overflowed its meagre facilities. The sick lay exposed to the elements, and corpses accumulated before being buried in mass graves.

Smallpox killing hundreds of Indians

May 14, 1862

VICTORIA. Vancouver Island - A terrible epidemic of smallpox has struck the Indian population of Vancouver Island and British Columbia, leaving hundreds - perhaps thousands - of natives dead. The disease arrived in this city in March, transmitted by a sailor from San Francisco. It soon took hold in the Indian settlements on the outskirts of the town.

Since the gold rush boom of 1858, more and more natives visit Victoria each summer, some from their territories far to the north. They trade furs, handicrafts, fish and game animals with the local people, and sometimes take jobs as laborers before returning to their villages for the winter. Smallpox has spread like wildfire through their crowded camps, and early this month white settlers began to urge that the Indians be driven away from the city_ As a result, authorities have evicted the Indians and burned their houses.

Northern Indians haves to return home and they will surely carry the highly infectious with them, spreading it up the and into the interior. The Indians have no immunity to smallpox and whole villages stand the risk of being wiped out once the infection reaches them. It is the worst calamity to hit the natives of this coast since the arrival of whites.

Scarlet fever killing hundreds of Indians

July 1865

PEEL'S RIVER POST. Rupert's Land - The Indians of the Mackenzie and Yukon valleys, already weakened by European diseases are dying by the hundreds of scarlet fever, brought in by the Hudson's Bay Company's supply boat crews. As the boats went down the Mackenzie, they took the disease to the various Indian camps. Then the supply expedition to Fort Yukon spread the disease east as it trekked over the mountains.

Smallpox epidemic ravages plains Indians

Fall 1869

PRAIRIES - A murderous smallpox epidemic is devastating plains Indians. The disease has killed thousands of Bloods, Blackfoot, Assiniboines and Crees, and has also spread to the Métis. The epidemic began on the Upper Missouri River [Montana], apparently when some Crow Indians caught it from infected whites who came upriver in a steamboat.

The disease then spread quickly northward.

Many Wounds, a Sarcee Indian. Describes how smallpox attacked his band. "Some became red all over, but their skin did not break out into open sores; others were covered with red sores oozing pus. Some were attacked in the throat; their tongues swelled and they suffocated. Others felt pain in the spine and died in one night."

Priest charges CNR with discrimination

Aug. 23, 1965

CARRIE, Ont. - Father Bernard Brown, a Roman Catholic missionary from the Northwest Territories, received a rude shock when he boarded a train between Toronto and North Bay with the young men on the canoe team he coaches. An employee of the Canadian National Railways allegedly told him: "Take your Indians to the rear car and kindly keep them there." The discriminatory comment angered the priest. "There is definitely segregation here if that's the way things work on our public conveyances," the coach said.

Typhoid epidemic linked to milkman

April 22, 1927

MONTREAL - A man who remained a carrier of typhoid fever for more than 20 years is the only source authorities have been able to cover in the epidemic that began arch 4 and lasted for more than a month. There were 2,415 cases of typhoid fever reported; 189 lives been lost.

The man had applied for and got a job in a local dairy.

He was fired .soon as it was learned that he was a carrier. The facts have been given to the United States consul to be forwarded to Washington in the hope there will be a speedy lifting of U.S. embargo on milk produced Montreal and the surrounding district. A new metropolitan health commission is under consideration.

Health board fears smallpox epidemic

Oct. 30, 1906

MONCTON - It is feared that the smallpox outbreak in Kent County north of here will spread. The Moncton Board of Health said today an investigation has turned up at least 100 cases. Quarantine was not imposed quickly enough and some people exposed to the disease have left. These include four lumber camp workers believed to he in this city and for horn the health hoard is searching.

Mistreated Métis decide Manitoba is not for them

1881

WINNIPEG - When Manitoba entered Confederation 11 years ago, its population was largely Métis. Today it is dominated by Ontario settlers of British descent. The Métis have become alienated in their homeland and have left the province in droves after Louis Riel and others fought so hard to protect their rights here in negotiations for Manitoba's entry to Canada.

The decline of the buffalo hunt forced many Métis to leave Manitoba in the 1870s. Each year Métis hunters had to travel further west in search of the rapidly vanishing herds. Métis set up communities on western rivers like the Saskatchewan to be closer to the herds.

But Métis have also left Manitoba because they have been badly mistreated here. Following the arrival of the Red River expedition in August 1870, Ontario militiamen and members of the settlement's Canadian faction threatened and assaulted Métis in revenge for the execution of Thomas Scott. They even killed François Guillemette and Elzear Goulet. Witnesses reported men "rolling and fighting in the miry mud holes of Winnipeg."

In recent years, many Métis and some Country-Born have left the province to look for farmland to the west because they have been denied land here. They have received a mere fraction of the 1.4 million acres granted them by the Manitoba Act. Through government corruption or neglect, the grant ha, suffered delays and confusion, and most of the land has gone to speculators. The Manitoba Act also assured the Métis and Country- Born security of tenure for the land the: occupied in 1870. They were required to apply to dominion officials for title to the land, but officials have rejected many Métis claims, in some cases because the Métis occupy the land for only a few week a year and spend the rest of the yea away on the buffalo hunt.

The Canadian government added, insult to injury in its treatment of the Métis by stalling its granting an amnesty to Riel and others in the Red River uprising.

Prostitute shoots drunken Mountie

Oct. 28, 1888

EDMONTON - The calm of Nellie Webb's house of prostitution was violently shattered tonight when two drunken Mounties tried to force their way in.

Mounties, most of them single men under 30, are among the prostitutes' best customers, but tonight Nellie refused to let two in – maybe because they were so drunk. She says they threatened to wreck the house and kill her, and when the started to kick down the door, she shot one of them in the thigh. Nellie has been arrested on charges of malicious shooting.