Learning From The Past and Planning For The Future
MENTAL HEALTH MOMENT June 14, 2002 "You're always a little disappointing in person because you can't be the edited essence of yourself." - Mel Brooks
Short Subjects
LINKS Mental Health Moment Online CONFERENCES AND WORKSHOPS:
Challenge the System: Open the Door to Victims with Disabilities
June 23 - 24, 2002
Parkway Plaza
Casper, Wyoming
Registration deadline:
June 14, 2002
Registration fee: $125 Limited Registration Scholarships Request
by phone only:
307-766-2761
Accommodations:
Parkway Plaza
Casper, WY
$50 + tax, available until June 9, 2002
Phone: 800-270-7829
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WIND Receptionist:
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Fax: 307-766-2763
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Mail:
WIND-Challenge the System
PO Box 4298
Laramie, WY 82071-4298
International Biennial Conference on Self-Concept Research: Driving International Agendas
August 6 - 8, 2002
Location: Sydney, AUSTRALIA
Contact: Kate Johnston
SELF Research Centre
University of Western Sydney
Australia Email: k.johnston@uws.edu.au3rd Ibero-american Congress on Clinical and Health Psychology
November 20 - 23, 2002
Location: Caracas, VENEZUELA
Contact: Zuleyma Perez
Alcabala a Puente Anauco
Edificio Puente Anauco Piso # 2
Apartamento # 27
La Candelaria, Caracas (Venezuela)
Tel./Fax: (+58) 212-5713060
Email:
apicsavenezuela@cantv.net
apicsa@attglobal.netInternational Society for the Study of Behavioral Development
August 2-6, 2002
Ottawa Canada
$200 for early registration by members Location:ISSBD
School of Psychology
120 University Pr.
Ottawa Canada K1N 6N5
Contact: Kibeza Kasubi
Secretary to Prof. Barry Schneider
Phone: 613 562-5800 Ext. 4190
Fax: 613 562 5147
Email: issbd@uottawa.ca
www.issbd.uottawa.ca
COGNITIVE THERAPY FOR DEPRESSION SUSTAINS IMPROVEMENT LONGER THAN DRUGS
The two methods are equally effective initially, but the enduring effect of cognitive therapy cuts costs. MedscapeWire 2002
http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/434073?srcmp=psy-053102DEPRESSION ASSOCIATED WITH SUBSEQUENT RISK FOR PARKINSON'S DISEASE
A diagnosis of depression is associated with a three-fold higher incidence of Parkinson's disease, Dutch investigators report in the May 28th issue of Neurology. http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/434185?srcmp=psy-053102
AFRICA, LATIN AMERICA & ASIA CHANGING CHRISTIANITY
Despite the current focus on the growth of Islam worldwide, Christianity will still be the world's largest religion for the foreseeable future, but its center is shifting from Western Europe and North America to Africa, Latin America and Asia, says a Penn State historian in a new book, "The Next Christendom: The Coming of Global Christianity." "We are currently living through one of the transforming moments in the history of religion worldwide," says Philip Jenkins, Distinguished Professor of History and Religious Studies, who estimates that by 2050, only about one-fifth of the world's 3 billion Christians will be non-Hispanic Whites. For the full story by Vicki Fong, visit: http://www.psu.edu/ur/2002/globalchristianity.html
CONDUCT AN ETHICS AUDIT BEFORE JOINING A FIRM
While advancement opportunities, corporate culture, salary and signing bonuses are important factors when considering a job offer, a Penn State researcher advises conducting an ethical culture audit before joining any firm. "Given the current environment and the growing number of corporate scandals, there are a number of questions that one should ask abut the ethical culture of an organization before accepting a job," says Linda K. Treviño, professor of organizational behavior in the Smeal College of Business Administration and co-author of the book, "Managing Business Ethics: Straight Talk About How to Do It Right." For the full story by Steve Infanti, visit: http://www.smeal.psu.edu/news/releases/jun02/ethics.html
DISCOVERY CHANNEL: "ONLY HUMAN"
TUNE IN: JUNE 19, 2002
9 p.m. - 10 p.m.
APA President Phil Zimbardo is pleased to announce a new television pilot, "ONLY HUMAN". This pilot, produced by Dateline NBC for the Discovery Channel, features five skits each with a psychological theme. Commentary is provided by Dr. Zimbardo and other psychologists. If the pilot is well received, a full season of similar shows will be created for broadcast.FEMA Director Joe M. Allbaugh and Colorado Gov. Bill Owens toured fire ravaged parts of Colorado Tuesday.
Fires in Colorado encompass more than 125,000 acres making it the largest forest fire in the state's history. Six thousand families have been forced to evacuate their homes as the fire continues to burn. For more information, go to: http://www.fema.gov
Colorado Wildfire Forces 40,000 Residents to Evacuate
The American Red Cross is responding to the evacuation of 40,000 residents southwest of Denver, Colo. The “Hayman Fire” had grown to about 75,000 acres and was some 55 miles southwest of Denver, moving at about 1 mph when winds turned the flames back. The American Red Cross is prepared to shelter and bring relief to potential fire evacuees.
Computer Learning Center Helps Homeless Children Keep Up
Children staying in a Red Cross-run homeless shelter in Levittown, Pa., learn valuable computer skills.
ELECTRONIC BRA DETECTS CANCER
Researchers have developed an electronic bra, capable of detecting breast cancer. By sending tiny electrical pulses into the breast tissue, the new system is able to construct a three-dimensional scan, allowing effective identification of tumours. The new technology was developed by researchers at De Montfort University in Leicester and will be tested thoroughly in an extensive trial in China. It is a far cheaper alternative to mammography and seems more effective in diagnosing problems in pre-menopausal women.
IMPORTANT CROSS CULTURAL VARIABLES - NEEDS
Context
Contextual factors are concerned with the ways in which economic, social and religious organization can affect the meaning of a phenomenon. Certain basic institutions such as subsistence pattern, social organization, and social stratification vary from culture to culture. These differences are likely to affect the behavior of people within each system as well as their likely responses to disaster situations.
Although relatively few hunter, gatherer and fisher societies remain due to the vast acculturation in the twentieth century, there is a sprinkling of such peoples with viable economic systems (Lee & DeVore, 1968). In the area of social organization, monogamy is a minor marriage type and polyandry is rare. The polygynous family remains widespread despite incursions of missioinary-instilled Christian monogamy. Another social organizational feature is the post-marital residence pattern. The Western practice of a separate abode from the parents at marriage is unusual on a worldwide basis. The ubiquity of social stratification in the modern world is not reflected in traditional societies. Though class structure is prevalent, many traditional societies do not make significant status distinctions.
Some other important system level variables include sociocultural complexity (of which social stratification is a component), magico-religious roganization, and the ecological setting.
Context, as it influences behavior, is often on a smaller scale than that of major system differences. However, it is just as important. One example is a specific concept which is present in one society and completely absent in another (Triandis & Vassiliou, 1972; Vassiliou & Vassiliou, 1973). For example, the concept of "winner" in United States culture indicates someone who repeatedly comes in first or consistently profits from his/her life experiences. Winning is usually ascribed to competence or hard work, though at times it may be suspected to be based at least partially on luck. Among the Logoli of East Africa, the term "winner" has no directly translatable equivalent. One native speaker attempted to translate the meaning as defined by an American investigator. Using a series of back translations, the concept emerged as "one who passes by another's house" having arrived at that from a previous "one who passes by another". Though specific occurences of winning are present (e.g., a race, a school prize) and may be translated directly, the concept of "winner" is apparently not a permanent attribute that can be ascribed to an individual in Logoli culture.
There are times when behaviors may be similar in intention but not similar in form. Aggression must be identified within the culture (Sears, 1961). For example, to know that a certain form of lip-puckering is an act of aggression (possibly equivalent to "thumbing the nose" in the United States) it is important to learn something of the conditions in which such an action takes place. Berry & Dasen (1974) and Sears (1961) suggest that even detailed resemblances between two phenomena don't necessarily indicate cross-cultural equivalence. For example, the Russian word grazhdanin is directly and unambiguously translatable into English as citizen. Grazhdanin is a term commonly used in Russian as an appellation preceding the surname (e.g., grazhdanin Putin). When Richard Nixon resigned as President of the United States, he was repeatedly referred to as citizen Nixon in the press. The apparent equivalence of citizen and grazhdanin should not have presented any problem. The English citizen Nixon should have translated into the Russian grazhdanin Nikson. However, in English, the term citizen was used to contrast Nixon's newly acquired legal liability with his formerly held Presidential immunity from prosceution. However, Russian translations would have been misleading without accompanying explanatory notes. Such difficulties with so narrow a concept make it clear that cross cultural equivalence can become rather moot when applied to broad phenomena like intelligence, cooperativeness, or spirits. Treatment of certain unique events is a delicate operation in any case. However, its demands are very exacting across cultures.
In order to understand behavior in different cultures an extensive knowledge of the background and rules, and tacit assumptions which can affect responses is required. Awareness of context is helpful in reminding one that the meaning of any response is fully explainable only in terms of the many variables surrounding it. If matters of contextual understanding are attended to with caution and care, a comparative approach can be successful.
MAJOR INDIVIDUAL VARIABLES
Biological Needs
Satisfaction of biological needs (hunger and thirst, elimination, sleep, and sex) has definite survival value. Temporary frustration in satisfying these needs can cause both severe discomfort for the individual and potential conflict for the group. Because of this, societies channel the needs, control and shape them during the period of socialization and define their appropriate modes, times, or places of expression in adulthood. Natural rhythms affect the cultural patterning of these needs. The cycle of gratification is tewnty-four hours or less, except for sex. Ingestion and sleep are always culturally defined as appropriately happening at least once each day. Elimination appears to be behaviorally patterned this way, but rarely with explicit cultural expectations.
Hunger
All societies prohibit the eating of specific foods at certain times. The number of meals each day ranges from a single one in many societies to the six of pre-World War I Austria. Total intake ranges from the 1700 calorie daily diet of the Bemba of Zambia (Gluckman, 1972) to the fifteen pound bursts of meat-eating engaged in by Sirono (Bolivia) individuals following a meatless period of several days (Holmberg, 1969). Infant feeding appears to be somewhat dependent on socio-ecological pressures that impinge on the mother. Supplemental feeding begins earlier where the mother is heavily involved in the subsistence economy (Nerlove, 1974).
Sleep
There are differences of more than an hour between Mexican and English averages in daily sleep (Taub, 1971). The Choroti of the Gran Chaco of South America come closest to an exception to a twenty-four hour rhythm in sleep patterns. They spend their nights eating and chatting as well as sleeping. They rarely sleep more than two consecutive hours. Perhaps one of the most unusual sleep practices takes place among the Yahgan of South America. They fall asleep effortlessly at any time of the day, ignore distractions, and remain observant. When they awaken, they are aware of what has transpired around them during sleep (Gusinde, 1937).
Spatial arrangements for sleeping demonstrate several regularities. For example, in societies where polygyny occurs, the husband seldom sleeps together in the same bed with more than one wife. However, the custom does happen (e.g., among the Ingalik of Alaska)(Osgood, 1958). In cooler climates, husband and wife usually sleep together, presumably for warmth (Whiting, 1964). In cooler climate, infants more frequently sleep apart from the mother in separate cradles, cribs, or sleeping bags of their own. The common Western pattern of segregating a sleeping infant in a room alone is most unusual around the world. It might even be unique. In nearly half of all vsocieties, infants sleep in the same bed as the mother to the exclusion of the father. However, this custom is discontinued in early childhood. In societies where children and their mother even reside alone together, at puberty the male children always move to another dwelling (Stephens, 1962). The relevance of these items to the support of incest taboos is evident.
Sex
The frequency of sexual behavior is rather poorly documented cross culturally. The maximum reported for intercourse among the Bena of Tanzania reaches three to five times daily (Swartz, 1969). This was also the maximum reportedby Kinsey (Kinsey, Pomeroy & Martin, 1948) in the United States. These data are very subjective and open to controversy.
In many societies, homosexuality is a common practice (e.g., among the people of East Bay in Melanesia; also among the Keraki of Ne Guinea)(Davenport, 1965; Williams, 1936). However, homosexual relations are not exclusive in such societies. Universally, the prevailing outlet among adults is heterosexual. Heterosexual relations between adults and prepubertal children are quite rare. Rape is highly variable. Soime societies lack any such concept. Some have zero incidence and some regard it as the preferred form of sexual activity (Minturn, Grosse, and Haider, 1969).
The strongest regularity is the incest taboo. Sexual socialization varies from full permissiveness to corporal punishment (Whiting & Child, 1953). Modesty training also ranges widely, e.g., from the Western Apache, who teach children of a year and a half not to expose private parts (Goodwin, 1942), to the Melanesian Trobrianders of whom Malinowski (1955) says:
"There is no putting of any veils on natural functions, certainly not in the case of a child.... These children run about naked...there is no general taboo on bodily parts or on nakedness in general."Other NeedsAlthough Indian Yogas have effectively demonstrated the possibility of reducing oxygen intake to one-third of normal for brief periods (Prowitt & Daly, 1972), breathing has seldom been a subject of control in any society (Ford, 1939). Maintenance of body temperature would seem to require clothing and shelter of some kind everywhere except the tropics. However, in sub-antarctic South America (summer mean temperature around 50 degrees F with snow common and winter mean temperature near the freezing point), the Ona sleep in the open with rude, one-sided windbreaks (Cooper, 1946a) and the Yahgan wear only shoulder and breast capes (Cooper, 1946b). Avoidance of pain appears to be much less widespread than expected. Ascetic and masochistic elements form part of many ceremonies and rites.
Finally, stimulation itself seems to be parts of daily life everywhere. Among Burmese monks, as much as 10% may voluntarily choose minimal stimulation (Spiro, 1970). An extreme example of reduction of stimulation occurs during the late childhood of Mehinacu (Brazil) boys, among whom near-total seclusion from others lasts for three years (Gregor, 1970). Beyond the daily level of stimulation, at least aperiodically, all societies have ceremonial events which appear to raise the level of stimulation. This is usually done by permitting unusual behaviors and by involving personnel from a wider group than the family. ************************************************************************************************
REFERENCES Berry, J.W. & Dasen, P.R. (Eds>) (1974). Culture and cognition: Readings in cross-cultural psychology, 225-29. London: Methuen.
Cooper, J.M. (1946a). The Ona. In J.H. Steward (Ed.), Handbook of South American Indians, Vol. I, pp. 107-25. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Cooper, J.M. (1946b). The Yahgan. In J.H. Steward (Ed.), Handbook of South American Indians Vol. I pp. 81-106. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Davenport, W. (1965). Sexual patterns and their regulation in a society of the southwest pacific. In F.A. Beach (Ed.), Sex and behavior, 164-207. New York: Wiley.
Ford, C.S. (1939). Society, culture, and the human organism. Journal of General Psychology, 20, 135-79.
Gluckman, M. (1972). How the Bemba make their living. In J.D. Jennings & E.A. Hoebel (Eds.), Readings in anthropology, 190-98. New York: McGraw-Hill (Originally published in 1945).
Goodwin, G. (1942). The social organization of the western Apache. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Gregor, P.M. (1970). Exposure and seclusion: A study of institutionalized isolation among the Mehinacu Indians of Brazil. Ethnology, 9, 234-50.
Gusinde, M. (1937). Die Yamana: Vom leben und denken der wassernomaden am Kap Hoorn. Modling bei Wien: Anthropos-Bibliothek. (The Yahgan: The Life and Thought of the Water Nomads of Cape Horn. Translated for the Human Relations Arrea Files, Yale University.)
Holmberg, A.R. (1969). Nomads of the long bow. Garden City, NY: Natural History Press (Originally published in 1950).
Kinsey, A.C., Pomeroy, W. B. & Martin, C.E. (1948). Sexual behavior in the human male. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders.
Lee, R.B. & DeVore, I. (Eds.) (1968). Man the hunter. Chicago: Aldine.
Malinowski, B. (1955). Sex and repression in savage society. New York: Meridian Books. (Originally published in 1927.)
Minturn, L., Grosse, M. & Haider, S. (1969). Cultural patterning od sexual beliefs and behavior. Ethnology, 8, 301-18.
Nerlove, S.B. (1974). Women's workload and infant feeding practices: A relationship with demographic implications. Ethnology, 13, 207-214.
Osgood, C. (1958). Ingalik social culture. New Haven: Yale University Publications in Anthropology, No. 53, Yale University Press.
Prowitt, D. & Daly, P. (Producers) (1972). Mind of man. New York: National Educational Television (Film).
Sears, R.R. (1961). Transcultural variables and conceptual equivalence. In B. Kaplan (Ed.), Studying personality cross-culturally, 445-55. New York: Harper & Row.
Spiro, M.E. (1970). Buddhism and society. New York: Harper & Row.
Stephens, W.N. (1962). The Oedipus complex. Clencoe, IL: Free Press.
Swartz, M.J. (1969). Some cultural influences on family size in three East African societies. Anthropological Quarterly, 42, 73-88.
Taub, J.M. (1971). The sleep-wakefulness cycle in Mexican adults. Journal of Cross-cultural psychology, 2, 353-63.
Triandis, H.C. & Vassiliou, V.A. (1972). A comparative analysis of subjective culture. In H.C. Triandis, V. Vassiliou, G. Vassiliou, Y. Tanaka, & A.V. Shanmugam, The analysis of subjective culture, 299-335. New York: Wiley.
Vassiliou, V.G. & Vassiliou, G. (1973). The implicative meaning of the Greek concept of philotimo. Journal of Cross-cultural Psychology, 4, 326-41.
Whiting, J.W.M. (1964). Effects of climate on certain cultural practices. In W.H. Goodenough, Explorations in cultural anthropology, 511-44. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Whiting, J.W.M. & Child, I.L. (1953). Child training and personality. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Williams, F.E. (1936). Papuans of the trans-fly. Oxford: The Clarendon Press.
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