Koray Velibeyoglu
Izmir Institute of Technology, Phd
Candidate,
The
integration of world with the rise of global economy is chiefly the by-product
of last decades of 20th century. This period had witnessed the
emergence of some dramatic changes in economical, social and cultural platforms
of the world. To many commentators the new developments in information
technology and shifts in capitalist economic system from industrial economy to
information economy has revolutionized our lives and cities. The new type of
society that has been emerging is variously labeled as post-modern,
post-industrial, post-Fordist, information or global.
Knowledge-based,
information reach industrial production is considered at the heart of these
rapid changes. Therefore to discuss and measure the impacts of information
economy upon our cities and lives are one of the major urban planning problems.
Needless to say that information economy can currently be observed only in
small parts of the world however its effect is worldwide. For that reason it is
vital for urban planning study and policies that how the new faces of the
global cities will look like and which forces and factors will change them?
This paper aims to
discuss the global cities in information economy by examining the technopoles
as a new scene of 21st century’s industry and cityscape. It is also
tries to find clues about the possibility of techno-city (intelligent city, or
science city) as a new morphology of cities.
This paper has three
parts. In section A the rise of informational economy and the changing
positions of world cities in global world can briefly be outlined. Section B is
confronted to the concept of “Technopole” that refers geographically-focused
clusters of interrelated technology producers, innovative manufacturers,
research institutions, expert service providers, investors and coordinating
institutions. Technopoles of the world will be mentioned according to their
typologies, and specific criteria. Explanations will be supported by case
studies of each type. Lastly, as a conclusion, the future position of
technopoles in global economy will be discussed in the light of current
discussions and speculations such as futuristic technopolises of Japans and
virtual technopolis phenomenon.
Information has become an important part of the economy since the
1940s. Informational economies what we called today are on the basis of
information sector that has emerged primarily in response to the increasing
complexity of the economic system and increasing demand for flow of information
by the globalization. The information economy is comprised of firms involved
with information products or information services that can be examined in four
categories: [1]
Information has great mobility that gives both new opportunities and
new threats for cities. There is an increasing disparity between information-rich
and information-poor regions all around the world. The transition from
industrial economy to a knowledge-base informational economy will cause some
probable structural changes in cities that I will state some of them below.
Digital revolution is changing our society and cities tremendously.
According to futurist Alvin Toffler the emergence of knowledge-rich information
technologies represent the 'Third Wave' in the evolution of cities.[2]
Similarly Peter Drucker points out that today knowledge is the city’s crucial resource. Flows of data and
information will play a larger role than the flow of goods or capital in
tomorrow’s world. Cities that are the communication points and the control
centers for information systems will be the world’s command centers: global
cities. Saskia Sassen
explains the rise of global cities by the globalization of the economy: “The more globalized
the economy becomes, the higher the agglomeration of central functions in a
relatively few sites, that is, the global cities.”[3]
There may be several key points that will be
constituted the core of global cities:
The global, networked information economy creates
increasing competition between cities. Struggle
between global cities will upon the control of information, not the use.
For that reason the cities that are information-rich will become the key
command points for international economic system as
Secondly
another crucial resource for cities is the quality and availability of
skilled human resources that are the engine for economic development. Innovation
and new techniques that depend on information are now at the central part of
leading transnational firms. The key to profitability is increasingly based on
the innovative capacity of workforce.
Thirdly
the telecommunications infrastructure will be the physical backbone of 21st
century post-industrial cities as once railways and ports were. It is for this
reason that many cities are tries to expand their telecommunications facilities
and renew the existing ones for getting and distributing the information.
Last
but not the least it is vital for global cities that must be reconfigure their knowledge
institutions such as universities, collages, and knowledge transfer and
information centers like research centers.[4]
Many commentators
suggest that the decentralization of industrial components (dispersion of
headquarters, back offices, sales points, and inventories to the different
areas) and digitalization of economic activities by telecommunications (i.e. tele-shopping) will make cities obsolete in terms of
economic context. However place, as Sassen
claims, is central to the multiple circuits in global economy.[5]
In today’s world there are two types of place for global economic
activities: First one is the city and the other is export –processing zones or
hi-tech clusters, namely as technopoles, that are the focus of this study.
Fig.1. Evolution of urban form of a
Source:
(Graham and Marvin, 1996)
The technopole is a new
industrial place that brings together institutions, labor, and finance that
generate the basic materials of the informational economy. It is an emerging
form of specialized development that developed by the private sector or by the
public private partnership. Technopoles are generally supported by central and
local governments. Most of them are considered together with advantageous
connection of universities. Its areas are occupied mostly by private companies
that produce IT based products and innovation. Technopoles’ sites also include
some significant institutions such as universities, research institutes etc.
Because they are the centers of IT-oriented production considered as the nodes
of new industrial space of 21st century. Technopoles are scattered
all over the world but significantly focused on major post-industrial cities.
(Fig.2) Technopole programs of The United States,
Fig.2. Technopoles of the World
Unlike any other industrial arrangements
technopoles are more than just plots to rent. Let us check out what an advanced
technopole area offers to its entrepreneurs:
·
A mixture of university and
research centers with industry and government partnerships.
·
A combination of large,
small and entrepreneurial businesses.
·
Advanced technology
infrastructure for network communications.
·
A strong transportation
system combined with regional scale network.
·
Conference Centers and Hotels for meetings, training and entertaining.
·
Residential neighborhoods within walking distance of the R&D facilities.
·
Recreational amenities such as a golf course, jogging and biking trail, a fitness center
etc.[8]
Technical, social, recreational, and
educational supports make technopoles as one of the most important generators
of new IT-based industrial production and innovation. Needless to say that
Technopoles are mega projects and its sites require some basic arrangements.
These may be grouped under seven major headings:
1.
Scientific And Technological
Infrastructure: It covers the "knowledge
resources" of a region formed by universities, public and private research
labs, libraries, technological incubators, innovation centers, science parks.
These main institutions are supposed to ensure systematic project maintenance
and to promote networking. Information networks that ensure local, regional,
and international communication between the institutions and firms are the
backbones of these developments.
The
factors outlined below may be the less critical but considerable ones:
Despite the usefulness of
these sets of factors that outlined above are not enough to form a successful
technopole. As Castells and Hall point out that there
is no magic formula of being next
For the university: It provides expanded employment opportunities for students,
enhanced student and faculty recruiting, enhanced technology transfer,
increased interaction with industry, income, and application of technology in
regional economy.
For the firms in the
Technopoles: Easy access to skilled labor and to
university facilities and resources, new products and markets, enhanced
competitiveness.
For State and Local
Government: Increase in business activity, enhanced
personal, corporate and property taxes, recruitment and retention of highly
trained workforce and high-tech businesses, new high-tech jobs as well as other
jobs in the region, reinforced R&D economic base, exports, attraction of
other public and private investments.
Thus Technopoles aims to foster societal and economic progress via
technology and research their achievements can be evaluated alike from
traditional economic evolution criteria. These criteria can be summarized in
six headings:[11]
1.
Quantity of technological
innovations that is realized with cooperation of universities and research
institutes
2.
Common research projects
between the private firms and universities and other research centers within
technopole area.
3.
Manager services giving to the
private firms.
4.
Number of researchers passing
from university/research institution to technopole
5.
Invention and product sales
related to Technopole and incubator centers.
6.
Job creation; both in quality
and quantity.
Because
Technopoles are land and property-based, established by co-operation
of hi-tech businesses, universities, and governmental organizations, they
can vary from large technology and research hubs to small regional science
parks and incubator centers.
Although there are some slight differences the terms technopark,
industrial complex, business park, science park, technology park, and
technopolis are often used as equal with each other. Some of them have more
ambitious goals, some more modest ones, but they all generate scientific
synergy and economic productivity. Here I will elaborate my explanations by
four categories, largely based on Castells and Hall’s
definition.
High
technology firms that chiefly making innovative milieu constitutes industrial
complexes. These complexes are the true command centers of the new industrial
space. They link R&D and manufacturing their formations. Some are the early
centers that have been formed before the rise of global industrialization. Like
The
most important character of these developments is their spontaneity. Although
governments and universities play a crucial role in their developments they
take place without conscious planning. This characteristic distinguishes
industrial complexes from other types of technopoles. Because other types, like
technology parks, are the results of the deliberate institutional efforts that
try to imitate success of these spontaneous industrial complexes.
Along with
Fig.3.
It is not a valley at all, but rather the nearly flat area south of
Very core of the
system is innovation. Most of the key inventions in microelectronics and computing
have originated in
Some History:
·
The story has begun in
·
Throughout the 1950's,
electronics companies such as General Electric and
·
In 1957 Fairchild
Semiconductors was founded. This firm became the nucleus of 10 new spin-off
firms (Intel, National Semiconductors, Signetics,
Amelco and Advanced Micro Devices) that have been
created by former Fairchild engineers after 1965. Among these firms Intel’s
integrated circuit semiconductor chips would become the defacto
standard for the industry. By 1970, that industry had grown to around 15
companies, and the Computer Revolution
was on. In this decade military and aerospace demand boomed the semiconductor
industry in
·
By the mid-1970s
·
In 1981 IBM introduced its own
PC. After this date
To Hall and Castells “Silicon Valley now became
increasingly specialized in the high level of technological production in
microelectronics and computers, with companies automating their manufacturing
plants and/or moving them to other cheaper areas in the United States while
keeping in the Valley the high level functions of R&D, design, and advanced
manufacturing.” [14]
Evolution of
Generation of an innovative milieu
in
1.
Existence of Universities as Raw Material: The new raw material, that is scientific knowledge and advanced
technological information in electronics, generated in and diffused from
2.
Availability of Applicable Science and Technology: The Federal Government’s supported
3.
Accessibility of High-skilled Scientific and Technical Labor: Bay universities, including Stanford and Berkeley, has applied
strong scientific programs in the region. Therefore the first stages of milieu
has largely benefited from the pool of good engineers and technicians.
Although
The term science parks include all other similar names such as
research parks, technology parks, innovation centers and so on.
"A
science park is a property-based initiative which has formal operational
links with a university or other higher educational or research institution;
designed to encourage the formation and growth of knowledge-based business
and other organizations normally resident on site; has a management
function which is actively engaged in the transfer of technology and business
skills to the organizations on site.” [16]
Within this context, science parks may provide:
·
intellectual and physical
infrastructure that includes the built environment
its immediate surroundings as well as communications, telecommunication, IT,
business services and business support activities.
·
management support actively engaged in the transfer of both technology and, for their
clients, business skills.[17]
The first science park or science city was created on the campus of
Science parks are research complexes and have no direct territorial
linkage to manufacturing. They are expected to reach a higher level of
scientific quality through the synergy created by various institutions of they
own.
Science
parks can now be found in many parts of the world, including
Unlike spontaneously evolved industrial parks that including
·
It was within one hour from
·
There was an existing city in
the surrounding area
·
It was very close to
Construction of about 4000 hectares in
Tsukuba area has been started by Japan Housing Corporation in 1968. By 1980, 43
national organizations for research and education had moved to the 27-square
kilometer site in Tsukuba. At the beginning progress was slower than expected
but after 1985, when the International Science and Technology Expo was held in
Tsukuba, the city increased its infrastructure investments and governmental
promotion: The new expressway made for the Expo, The Joban Railway directly
linked to Tokyo’s Rapid Transit Expressway, investments in information and
communications technology (ICT), and Law of Promotion of Research Exchange
approved in 1987. After that, private firms have discovered the science city. [19]
Fig.4. Location of
At the end of 1980s, 30 percent of all
national research agencies and 40 percent of their researchers were found in
Tsukuba. Also about 50 percent of total budget for all institutes is invested
there. Today this number heightened to more than 200 research facilities
including laboratories of private companies built in the neighboring area, and
59 educational and research institutes (48 national, 11 non-profit) together
with the national University of Tsukuba (opened in 1973) that is the core of
Tsukuba Science City.[20]
(Fig.5)
Evaluating
Tsukuba
Tsukuba Science city is a
mega-project that costs 1.067 billion USD till the 1990. Despite a huge public
expenditure it cannot be said that Tsukuba is fully succeeded.
·
During the construction phase,
the Japan Housing Corporation met much opposition from landowners. As a
solution Japan Government had constituted new six different municipalities
within Tsukuba region to provide service coordination, and inefficient
management of infrastructure. But the problem has largely been remedied by the
merger of five of these municipalities (Oho, Sakura, Toyosato,
Tsukuba, and Yatabe) into one (
Fig.5.
Central Portion of
·
Another problem is the lack
of cohesion between National Institutions due to the vertical integration
characteristics of Japanese government agencies: This created the excessive
duplication of equipments, poor interaction with the private sector and
therefore the lack of joint research. Relocated research institutes (
·
Despite great efforts many
researchers have regarded Tsukuba as an isolated island, remote from normal
human society. Castells and Hall noted that there
is a “Tsukuba Syndrome” especially among researchers’ wives. Tsukuba still
suffers from lack of sufficient communication among disciplines. Studies had
shown that 8.8 percent of essential research information came from within Tsukuba,
against 23.1 percent from
Also there are many positive sides experiencing with
1980s has been the years of
development for Tsukuba. The isolation problem with
Technology parks are
well-planned high technology business areas established by government or
university-related initiatives. Despite the looseness of boundaries technoparks
differ from science parks and industrial complexes. Their image is much closer
to a new-style industrial district rather than innovation-based science-parks.
Innovation functions are not excluded from such project but they are mainly
based on manufacturing.
As outlined above
governments play an important role in the design and development of
technoparks. Technology parks are prestigious projects of large-scale regional
or national urban development policies. They try to attract hi-tech firms to
grow and compete in the informational global economy. Therefore industrial
competitiveness of any technology park projects is more important than their
R&D capacity. In this context French Science Park Sophia- Antipolis, known as one of the classic examples of a
technology parks, will be discussed as a remarkable example of this type.
(Fig.6)
Sophia-Antipolis has been established as the international
business park near Nice on the Mediterranean costs of
Fig.6.
Technopoles of
Historical background of the Park:
Fig.7. General
Map of Sophia-Antipolis
General Features of Sophia-Antipolis:
Table 1: Sophia-Antipolis 1999
|
|
SITUATION OF THE SCIENCE
PARK AS OF |
GROWTH 98/97 |
|
Jobs |
20 530 |
+10,8% |
|
Corporations |
1 164 |
+ 5,5% |
|
Space occupied |
861 100 |
+ 4,9% |
Source: Sophia-Antipolis’s Web Site (http://www.sophia-antipolis.net/anglais/infos/frame.htm)
Fig.8. Percentage
of Employees by Sectors (1999)
Fig.9.
Corporations in Sophia-Antipolis (1999)
Evaluating Sophia-Antipolis:
Sophia-Antipolis is one of the best examples of the technology
parks. Park’s failures and achievements can be discussed under three main
headings:[27]
The word
technopolis, a newly coined word, consists of a "techno" and a
"polis" which originally signify an "art" and a
"city" in Greek, and means an industrial city accumulated with
advanced technologies.[28]
As a huge scale and ambitious project Japan Technopolis program will be
examined associated with previously discussed
Timeline for
“Technopolis
(technology-intensive city) is a city that effectively combines an industrial
sector composed of electronics, machinery and other most advanced technologies
with an academic and residential sector. This concept aims at promoting
regional development and creating a new regional culture under the lead of
industrial and academic progress. A possible model scheme in and after the
1980s, it differs in its basic approach from the conventional ideas of regional
development centering on land utilization and infrastructural improvements.” [29]
·
In 1983 Technopolis Laws passed
and project started under a Technopolis Committee. They prepared a very
concentrated calendar for Technopolis: to choose the sites by 1984, to complete
construction of the physical infrastructure by 1990, and to complete
development of each technopolis by the year 2000. (Fig.10)
Fig.10. Technopoles of
Location Criteria For Technopolis Sites:
1.
A total area of 1300 square
kilometers or less,
2.
Existing enterprises with
potential for high-tech development,
3.
An existing city (
4.
An existing university with
high-tech education or research,
5.
Access to high-speed
transportation facilities giving a one-day return trip from
As state policy MITI
opened the Technopolis development to competition of local prefectures. These
prefectures would play the crucial role in planning and constructing the
technopoles. Therefore MITI’s role could be reduced
to the technical assistance level. 47 prefectures volunteered and 26 of all
were chosen. In implementation phase there were three different types of
technopolis sites. The first group was lagging technopolises that traditional
local industrial firms in there remain far behind new technologies. Second was
successfully attracted the outside capital. The third group is the
technopolises that transformed traditional local industry into modern local
industry successfully.
Goals of Technopolis
Program:
MITI had an ambitious plan to build a Japanese
technostate of research cities dispersed throughout
the economy (decentralization). The major aim of technopolis program is to
encourage development in relatively underdeveloped rural areas by forming
high-tech industrial complexes.[31]
Therefore the emphasis is on the peripheral regions rather than existing
metropolitan areas like
Evaluating the
Despite some negative
developments technopolis policy is a very well organized attempt. Its regional
and national goals are so big that some points seem unsuccessful in detail.
Especially its desire to encourage economic growth in a number of
underdeveloped areas holds some risks in the absence of fundamental market
analysis.
On
the other hand creating technopolises is a modern time utopia that its results
cannot be estimated in the age of uncertainty. In the conclusion part of this
paper I will extend these discussion parallel with the techno-city idea.
Post-Fordist
economy has created a range of new industrial spaces like Technopoles that
linked to the global markets. Because Technopoles are considered as a strong
tool in the international and intranational
competition between cities and regions as well as nations they are now to be
found on the periphery of every dynamic area in the world. Are technopoles at
the heart of new global economy or are they just a myth or a technological
utopia?
I
will try to elaborate this question with two extreme examples:
1. Technopoles, Teleports and the “
As previously
discussed to take the world leadership and to balance with regions and cities
Japans has started to construct technopolises that have very ambitious goals.
The idea has been implemented by
A critical element
in the improvement of metropolitan and regional areas is the teleport.
Teleport is a ground base for using expanding international and domestic
satellite communications through telecommunications facilities placed in a
well-equipped intelligent building (Telecom Center) that is linked to other
cities by optical fibres and other access circuits.
The teleport is expected to attract heavy users of telecommunications such as
financial institutions, insurance companies, computer firms and information
processing industries. This is the idea of new information-oriented city of 21st
century of Japans: a city is linked to the world by a communications satellite.
In this model, in terms of industry, attention is directed to the large-scale
factory development plants for sale. Within the region there is industrial
information center and overseas business enterprise with their own satellite
connections. There is also a local software factory, a new countryside
industrial area, and a technopolis area with a university, training center
and information center. This technopolis area, as Rimmer
points out, “has been at the forefront of
moves to prepackage these futuristic, information- oriented cities and regions
for export”.[32] (Fig.11)
Fig.11. The Informised
city and region of the 21st Century, Source: (Rimmer,1991)
We see that technopolis has greater role as an innovative milieu and
image builder in the creation of Japanese futuristic effort to shape 21st
century informational city. Japans has also used technopolis concept as a tool
for regional activation and seen its exporting potential to industrializing
countries within their area of influence. The most significant of this effort
is the Multi-Function Polis (MFP) proposal developed by Mitsubishi Electric
Corporation. (Fig.12)
Fig.12. Modular configuration of Technopolis,
Mitsubishi Electric Corporation plan, 1985,
Source: (Rimmer,
1991)
Japanese conception of 21st
century futuristic city is based on high-tech industries and services, research
and development activities, advanced educational, health and leisure facilities
and services that are all can be designed in an advanced technopole area. To
export and distribute their ideas Japans generally use hitting English-type
words such as cosmopolis,
technopolis, scientopolis, and multi-function polis. These projects
have not yet entirely fulfilled and still open to the debate but can be
concluded in two major questions:
2. Virtual Technopoles
For the location of
business, company and university research activities, and of manufacturing,
distribution, and marketing the dependency to physical place is reduced
via increasingly cheaper ICT. Researches work together over the Internet,
regardless of where they are. For companies, each activity may take place in a
different location: R&D, design, raw material sourcing, manufacturing,
assembly, distribution, and marketing.
This situation, according
to some commentators, is the end of science parks and technology parks could
become obsolete in the 21st century. The idea of a park or incubator
as a "real estate" enterprise should give way to that of a "knowledge-based"
enterprise. But as Saskia Sassen
states “There is no fully virtualized
firm and no fully digitalized industry. Even the most advanced information
industries, such as finance, are installed only partly in electronic space.”[33]
On the
other hand local linkages and face-to-face interactions have been always seen
as vital components for the creation and development of a technopolis. It can
be assumed that virtual linkages cannot be seen as substitutes for
person-to-person contacts, which will continue to have a crucial role. But the
two processes, the personal contact and the virtual connection, can complement
each other.
Networked
coordination is becoming increasingly dominant in informational global economy
today. We cannot deny the reinforcing effects of Virtual Technopoles on
existing industrial complexes. Actually there are few projects in the general
area of virtual technopolis development such as French Technopoli
Networks, Italian Tecnoretes, and
·
Small firms and start-ups may
provide great benefits, because they generally have limited access to
technology networks and to international events such as trade fairs; in less
developed regions, they tend to feel isolated.
·
For regional development
agencies, networking would be extremely useful to lessen regional deficiencies,
to improve focus and to reduce duplication of efforts.
·
Universities and research
centers also benefit greatly. Usually, they already have a high level of
interaction with similar organizations, but their linkages with the private
sector tend to be limited, and are often concentrated on large firms and
state-owned enterprises.
·
For large firms, the benefits
would be smaller, because they tend to have well-developed internal network
systems, and also linkages with their suppliers. In a cluster, they tend to be
more self-contained than the other agents, with fewer ties with local firms and
research institutions.
·
Governments would benefit from
increased efficiency, reduced duplication, and optimization of infrastructure.
A virtual technopolis could be a tool to encourage development and overcome
isolation in certain regions.
Both
Japan’s efforts to create 21st century futuristic technopolis and
Virtual Technopolis discussions have indicated three points of struggle: to
survive in global competition, to enhance knowledge and therefore create
innovative milieu, and to use physical and human resources efficiently.
The
role of technopoles in global economy as a new industrial space of 21st
century is still questionable. In Technopoles of the World Castells
and Hall found that:
“…most of the
world’s actual high-technology production and innovation still comes from areas
that are not usually heralded as innovative milieu, and indeed may have few of
their [technopoles] physical features: the great metropolitan areas of the
industrialized world.” [35]
Adding this remark to Saskia Sassen’s findings on the
rise existing metropolitan centers as command points for the new global economy
I can say that whether real or virtual industrial activities are still need the
services and facilities (trained human resources, face-to-face interaction in
close proximity, intellectual and social services and as well as physical
infrastructure etc.) that existing major cities offered.
We should know that today there is
no single type of industrial production and workplace and all production types
and production sites are becoming more complement each other. The common
denominator among all economic activities is globalization and strong believes
in technology. Technoparks are presented to most industrializing nations,
including
1.
Adem Karahoca et al., “ Bilgi Ýletiþim Teknolojilerinde Teknoparklarýn Ulusal Sanayideki Rolü”, 1997
2.
Carlos Quandt, “Virtual Technopoles: Exploring the Potential
of Internet and Web Technologies to Create Innovative Environments in
3.
D.K. Kahaner,
ATIP report, “Technological Innovation In
Japan”, 1995
4.
Edward Blakely, “The New Technology City: Infrastructure for
the Future Community”, in Cities of the 21st Century,
edited by: P. Hall at al., 1991
5.
Japan Atlas “
6.
Jim McCormick, “A brief history of
7.
Langdon Winner, “
8.
Manuel Castells
and Peter Hall, Technopoles of the World, 1994
9.
Ömer Kaymakçalan, “Teknoloji Geliþtirme ve
Transfer Aracý Olarak Teknoparklar”, Marmara Araþtýrma Merkezi (MAM)
10. P. Newton, “Telematic
Underpinnings of the Information Economy”, in Cities of the 21st
Century, edited by: P. Hall at al., 1991
11. Peter Rimmer, “Exporting Cities to the
12. Saskia Sassen, “Urban
Economies and Fading Distances”, Megacities
Lecture at: http://www.megacities.nl/lecture_sassen.html
13. Saskia Sassen, Global Cities, 1991
14. Sophia- Antipolis Web Site at: http://www.sophia-antipolis.net/anglais/infos/frame.htm
15. Stephan Graham, “Imagining the
Real-Time City: Telecommunications, Urban Paradigms and the Future of Cities”,
in Imagining Cities, edited by: Westwood,S.
and Williams, J., 1996
16.
17. United Kingdom Science Park Association (UKSPA) Homepage at: http://www.ukspa.org.uk/htmlfiles/index1.htm
18. Yamagata Technopolis Foundation Homepage at: http://www.ymgt-techno.or.jp/
[1] P. Newton, “Telematic Underpinnings of the Information Economy”, in Cities of the 21st Century, edited by:Hall at al., 1991
[2] Stephan Graham, “Imagining the Real-Time City: Telecommunications, Urban Paradigms and the Future of Cities”, in Imagining Cities, edited by: Westwood,S. and Williams, J., 1996
[3] Saskia Sassen, Global Cities, 1991
[4] Edward Blakely, “The New Technology City: Infrastructure for the Future Community”, in Cities of the 21st Century, edited by: P. Hall at al., 1991
[5] Saskia Sassen, “Urban Economies and Fading Distances”, Megacities Lecture at: http://www.megacities.nl/lecture_sassen.html
[6] Castells and Hall, 1994, Technopoles of the World, p.1
[7] ibid.
[8] Based on Centennial Campus Promotion Brochure, can be viewed at http://centennial.ncsu.edu/masterpl/tec.htm
[9] Carlos Quandt, “Virtual Technopoles: Exploring the Potential
of Internet and Web Technologies to Create Innovative Environments in
[10] ibid.
[11] Ömer Kaymakçalan, “Teknoloji Geliþtirme Ve Transfer Aracý Olarak Teknoparklar”, Marmara Araþtýrma Merkezi (MAM)
[12] Langdon Winner, “
[13] Jim McCormick, “A brief history of
[14] Castells and Hall, Technopoles of the World, 1994, p.20
[15] Castells and Hall, Technopoles of the World, 1994
[16] Definition of
Science Parks by United Kingdom Science Park Association (UKSPA), at: http://www.atip.or.jp/public/atip.reports.95/atip95.88r.html
[17] UKSPA Homepage at: http://www.ukspa.org.uk/htmlfiles/index1.htm
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[19] Castells and Hall, 1994, “Technopoles of the World: The Making of 21st century Industrial Complexes”
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[21] Castells and Hall, 1994, “Technopoles of the World: The Making of 21st century Industrial Complexes”
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[23] Castells and Hall, 1994, “Technopoles of the World: The Making of 21st century Industrial Complexes”
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[25] Sophia- Antipolis Web Site at: http://www.sophia-antipolis.net/anglais/infos/frame.htm
[26] Sophia- Antipolis Web Site at: http://www.sophia-antipolis.net/anglais/infos/frame.htm
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[28] Yamagata
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[29] Castells and Hall, 1994, “Technopoles of the World: The Making of 21st century Industrial Complexes”
[30] Castells and Hall, 1994, “Technopoles of the World: The Making of 21st century Industrial Complexes”
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[32] Peter Rimmer, “Exporting Cities to the
[33] Saskia Sassen, “Urban Economies and Fading Distances”, Megacities Lecture at: http://www.megacities.nl/lecture_sassen.html
[34] Carlos Quandt, “Virtual Technopoles:
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[35] Castells and Hall, Technopoles of the World, 1994, p.11